HANDICRAFT  SERIES. 

A  Series  of  Practical  Manuals. 

Edited  by  PAUL  N.  HASLUCK,  Editor  of  ‘‘Work.’ 

Price  SOcts.  each,  post  paid. 


House  Decoration.  Comprising  Whitewashing,  Paperhanging, 
Painting,  etc.  With  79  Ehigravings  and  Diagrams. 

Co7itents. — Colour  and  Paints.  Pigments,  Oils,  Driers,  Varnishes,  etc.  Tools 
used  by  Painters.  How  to  Mix  Oil  Paints.  Distemper  or  Tempera  Painting. 
Whitewashing  and  Decorating  a  Ceiling.  Painting  a  Room.  Papering  a  Room. 
Embellishment  of  Walls  and  Ceilings. 

Boot  Ma.kin^  a.nd  Mendm^.  Including  Repairing,  Lasting,  and 
Finishing.  With  179  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Repairing  Heels  and  Half-Soling.  Patching  Boots  and  Shoes. 
Re-Welting  and  Re-SoIing.  Boot  leaking.  Lasting  the  Upper.  Sewing  and 
Stitching.  Making  the  Heel.  Knifing  and  Finishing.  Making  Riveted  Boots 
and  Shoes. 

Mow  to  Write  Si^ns,  Tickets,  a.ndl  Posters.  With  170  Engravings 
and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Formation  of  Letters,  Stops,  and  Numerals.  The  Sign- 
writer’s  Outfit.  Making  Signboards  and  Laying  Ground  Colours.  The  Simpler 
Forms  of  Lettering.  Shaded  and  Fancy  Lettering.  Painting  a  Signboard. 
Ticket-Writing.  Poster- Painting.  Lettering  with  Gold,  etc. 

Wood  Finishing;.  Comprising  Staining,  Varnishing,  and  Polishing. 
With  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Processes  of  Finishing  Wood.  Processes  of  Staining  Wood. 
French  Polishing.  Fillers  for  Wood  and  Filling  In.  Bodying  In  and  Spiriting 
Off.  Glazing  and  Wax  Finishing.  Oil  Polishing  and  Dry  Shining.  Re-polishing 
and  Reviving.  Hard  Stoppin:;  or  Beaumontage.  Treatment  of  Floors  Stains. 
Processes  of  Varnishing  Wood  Varnishes.  Re-polishing  Shop  Fronts. 

Dy  na.mos  a.nd  Electric  Motors.  With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams 
Contents. — Introduction.  Siemens  Dynamo.  Gramme  Pynamo.  Manchester 
Dynamo.  Simplex  Dynamo.  Calculating  the  Size  and  Amount  of  Wire  for 
Small  Dynamos.  Ailments  of  Small  Dynamo  Electric  Machines  :  their  Causes 
and  Cures.  Small  Electro-motors  without  Castings.  How  to  Determine  the 
Direction  of  Rotation  of  a  Motor.  How  to  Make  a  Shuttle-Armature  Motor. 
Undertype  50-Watt  Dynamo.  Manchester  Type  440-Watt  Dynamo. 

Cycle  Building;  a.nd  Repairing;.  With  142  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Cofitents. — Introductory,  and  Tools  Used.  How  to  Build  a  Front  Driver. 
Building  a  Rear-driving  Safety.  Building  Tandem  Safeties.  Building  Front- 
driver  Tricycle.  Building  a  Hand  Tricycle.  Brazing.  How  to  Make  and  Fit 
Gear  Cases.  Fittings  and  Accessories.  Wheel  Making.  Tyres  and  Methods 
of  Fixing  them.  Enamelling.  Repairing. 

Decorative  Desig;ns  of*  All  Ag;es  for  All  Purposes.  With  277 
Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Savage  Ornament.  Egyptian  Ornament.  Assyrian  Ornament. 
Greek  Ornament.  Roman  Ornament.  Early  Christian  Ornament.  Arabic 
Ornament.  Celtic  and  Scandinavian  Ornaments.  Mediaeval  Ornament. 
Renascence  and  Modern  Ornaments.  Chinese  Ornament.  Persian  Ornament. 
Indian  Ornament.  Japanese  Ornament. 

Mounting  and  Framing;  Pictures.*  With  240  Engravings,  etc. 

Contents. — Making  Picture  Frames.  Notes  on  Art  Frames  Picture  Frame 
Cramps.  Making  Oxford  Frames.  Gilding  Picture  Frames.  Methods  of 
Mounting  Pictures.  Making  Photograph  Frames,  Frames  covered  with  Plush 
and  Cork.  Hanging  and  Packing  Pictures. 

Smiths*  Work.  With  211  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. —  Forges  and  Appliances.  Hand  Tools.  Drawing  Down  and  Up¬ 
setting.  Welding  and  Punching.  Conditions  of  Work  1  Principles  of  Forma¬ 
tion.  Bending  and  Ring  Making.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Forged  Work. 
Cranks,  Model  Work,  and  Die  Forging.  Home-made  Forges.  The  Manipula¬ 
tion  of  Steel  at  the  Forge.  (Continued  on  next  page.) 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  610  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES  {continued). 


Glass  Working  by  Heat  and  Abrasion.  With  300  Engravings 
and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Appliances  used  in  Glass  Blowing.  Manipulating  Glass  Tubing. 
Blowing  Bulbs  and  Flasks.  Jointing  Tubes  to  Bulbs  forming  Thistle  Funnels, 
etc.  Blowing  and  Etching  Glass  Fancy  Articles  ;  Embossing  and  Gilding  Flat 
Surfaces.  Utilising  Broken  Glass  Apparatus  ;  Boring  Holes  in,  and  Riveting 
Glass.  Hand-working  of  Telescope  Specula.  Turning,  Chipping,  and  Grinding 
G:ass.  The  Manufacture  of  Glass. 

Building'  Model  Boa.is>  With  i68  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Building  Model  Yachts.  Rigging  and  Sailing  Model  Yachts. 
Making  and  Fitting  Simple  Model  Boats.  Building  a  Model  Atlantic  Liner. 
Vertical  Engine  for  a  Model  Launch.  Model  Launch  Engine  with  Reversing 
Gear.  Making  a  Show  Case  for  a  Model  Boat. 

Electric  Bells,  How  to  Make  and  Fit  Them,  With  162  En¬ 
gravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Electr  c  Current  and  the  Laws  that  Govern  it.  Current 
Conductors  used  in  Electric-Bell  Work.  Wiring  for  Electric  Bells.  Elaborated 
Systems  of  Wiring  ;  Burglar  Alarms.  Batteries  for  Electric  Bells.  The  Con¬ 
struction  of  Electric  Bells,  Pushes,  and  Switches.  Indicators  for  Electric- Bell 
Systems. 

Bamboo  Work.  With  177  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Bamboo  :  Its  Sources  and  Uses.  How  to  Work  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Tables.  Bamboo  Chairs  and  Seats.  Bamboo  Bedroom  Furniture.  Bamboo 
Hall  Racks  and  Stands.  Bamboo  Music  Racks.  Bamboo  Cabinets  and  Book¬ 
cases.  Bamboo  Window  Blinds.  Miscellaneous  Articles  of  Bamboo.  Bamboo 
Mail  Cart. 

Ta.xidermy.  With  108  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Skinning  Birds.  Stuffing  and  Mounting  Birds.  Skinning  and 
Stuffing  Mammals.  Mounting  Animals’  Horned  Heads  :  Polishing  and  Mount¬ 
ing  Horns.  Skinning,  Stuffing,  and  Casting  Fish.  Pj  eserving.  Cleaning,  and 
Dyeing  Skins.  Preserving  Insects,  and  Birds’  Eggs.  Cases  for  Mounting 
Specimens. 

Ta.iloring’.  With  180  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tailors’  Requisites  and  Methods  of  Stitching.  Simple  Repairs 
and  Pressing.  Relining,  Repocketing,  and  Recollaring.  How  to  Cut  and 
Make  Trousers.  How  to  Cut  and  Make  Vests.  Cutting  and  Making  Lounge 
and  Reefer  Jackets.  Cutting  and  Making  Morning  and  Frock  Coats. 
Photogrra.phic  Cameras  and  Accessories,  Comprising  How  to 
Make  Cameras,  Dark  Sliles,  Shutters,  and  Stands.  With  160 
Illustrations. 

Contents. — Photographic  Lenses  and  How  to  Test  them.  Modern  Half-plate 
Cameras.  Hand  and  Pocket  Cameras.  Ferrotype  Cameras.  Stereoscopic 
Cameras.  Enlarging  Cameras.  Dark  Slides.  Cinematograph  Management. 

Optical  Lanterns,  Comprising  The  Construction  and  Management 
OF  Optical  Lanterns  and  the  Making  of  Slides.  With  160 
Illustrations. 

Contents. — Single  Lanterns.  Dissolving  View  lanterns.  Illuminant  for 
Optical  Lanterns.  Optical  Lantern  Accessories.  Conducting  a  Limelight 
Lantern  Exhibition.  Experiments  with  Optical  Lanterns.  Painting  Lantern 
Slides.  Photographic  Lantern  Slides.  Mechanical  Lantern  Slides.  Cinemato¬ 
graph  Management. 

Eng^raving^  Metals,  With  Numerous  Illustrations. 

— Introduction  and  Terms  used.  Engravers’  Tools  and  their  Uses. 
Elementary  Exercises  in  Engraving.  Engraving  Plate  and  Precious  Metals. 
Engraving  Monograms.  Transfer  Processes  of  Engraving  Metals,  Engraving 
Name  Plates.  Engraving  Coffin  Plates.  Engraving  Steel  Plates.  Chasing 
and  Embossing  Metals.  Etching  Metals. 

Ba.8ket  Work*  With  189  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Simple  Baskets.  Grocer’s  Square  Baskets. 
Round  Baskets.  Oval  Baskets.  Flat  Fruit  Baskets.  Wicker  Elbow  Chairs. 
Basket  Bottle-casings.  Doctors’  and  Chemists’  Baskets.  Fancy  Basket  Work. 
Sussex  Trug  Basket.  Miscellaneous  Basket  Work.  Index 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  610  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


HANDICRAFT  SERIES  {continued'). 


Bookbinding  .  With  125  Engravings  and  Diagram.. 

Contents. — Bookbinders*  Appliances.  Folding  Pri:*ted  Book  Sheets.  Beat¬ 
ing  and  Sewing.  Rounding,  Backing,  and  Cover  Cutting.  Cutting  Book  Edges. 
Covering  Books.  Cloth-bound  Books,  Pamphlets,  etc.  Account  Books, 
Ledgers,  etc.  Coloring,  Sprinkling,  and  Marbling  Book  Edges.  Marbling 
Book  Papers.  Gilding  Book  Edges.  Sprinkling  and  Tree  Marbling  Book 
Covers.  Lettering,  Gilding,  and  Finishing  Book  Covers.  Index. 

Bent  Iron  Work.  \  ncluding  Elementary  Art  Metal  Work.  With 
269  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Tools  and  Materials.  Bending  and  Working  Strip  Iron.  Simple 
Exercises  in  Bent  Iron.  Floral  Ornaments  for  Bent  Iron  Work.  Candlesticks. 
Hall  Lanterns.  Screens,  Grilles,  etc.  Table  Lamps.  Suspended  Lamps  and 
Flower  Bowls.  Photograph  Frames.  Newspaper  Rack.  Floor  Lamps. 
Miscellaneous  Examples.  Index. 

Photography*  With  70  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — The  Camera  and  its  Accessories.  The  Studio  and  Darkroom. 
Plates.  Exposure.  Developing  and  Fixing  Negatives.  Intensification  and 
Reduction  of  Negatives.  Portraiture  and  Picture  Composition.  Flashlight 
Photography.  Retouching  Negatives  Processes  of  Printing  from  Negatives. 
Mounting  and  Finishing  Prints.  Copying  and  Enlarging.  Stereoscopic 
Photography.  Ferrotype  Photography.  Index. 

Upholstery.  With  162  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — ■'Upholsterers’  Materials.  Upholsterers’  Tools  and  Appliances. 
Webbing,  Springing,  Stuffing,  and  Tufting.  Making  Seat  Cushions  and  Squabs. 
Upholstering  an  Easy  Chair.  Upholstering  Couches  and  Sofas.  Upholstering 
Footstools,  Fenderettes,  etc.  Miscellaneous  Upholstery.  Mattress  Making 
and  Repairing.  Fancy  Upholstery.  Renovating  and  Repairing  Upholstered 
Furniture.  Planning  and  Laying  Carpets  and  Linoleum.  Index. 

Leather  Working.  With  152  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Qualities  and  Varieties  of  Leather.  Strap  Cutting  and  Making. 
Letter  Cases  and  Writing  Pads.  Hair  Brush  and  Collar  Cases.  Hat  Cases. 
Banjo  and  Mandoline  Cases.  Bags.  Portmanteaux  and  Travelling  Trunks. 
Knapsacks  and  Satchels.  Leather  Ornamentation.  Footballs.  Dyeing 
Leather.  Miscellaneous  Examples  of  Leather  Work.  Index. 

Harness  Making.  With  197  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Harness  Makers’  Tools.  Harness  Makers*  Materials.  Simple 
Exercises  in  Stitching.  Looping.  Cart  Harness.  Cart  Collars.  Cart  Saddles. 
Fore  Gear  and  Leader  Harness.  Plough  Harness.  Bits,  Spurs,  Stirrups,  and 
Harness  Furniture.  Van  and  Cab  Harness.  Index. 

Saddlery.  With  99  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Gentleman's  Riding  Saddle.  Panel  for  Gentleman’s  Saddle. 
Ladies’  Side  Saddles.  Children’s  Saddles  or  Pilches.  Saddle  Cruppers,  Breast¬ 
plates,  and  other  Accessories.  Riding  Bridles.  Breaking-down  Tackle  Head 
Collars.  Horse  Clothing.  Knee-caps  and  Miscellaneous  Articles.  Repairing 
Harness  and  Saddlery.  Re-lining  Collars  and  Saddles.  Riding  and  Driving 
Whips.  Superior  Set  of  Gig  Harness.  Index. 

Knotting  and  Splicing,  Ropes  and  Cordage.  With  20S 

Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction.  Rope  Formation.  Simple  and  Useful  Knots. 
Eye  Knots,  Hitches  and  Bends.  Ring  Knots  and  Rope  Shortenings.  Ties 
and  Lashings.  Fancy  Knots.  Rope  Splicing.  Working  Cordage.  Ham¬ 
mock  Making.  Lashings  and  Ties  for  Scaffolding.  Splicing  and  Socketing 
Wire  Ropes.  Index. 

Beehives  and  Beekeepers’ Appliances.  With  155  Engravings 

and  Diagrams. 

Conte?iis. — Introduction.  A  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  Temporary  Beehive. 
Tiering  Bar-Frame  Beehive.  The  “  W.  B.  C."  Beehive.  Furnishing  and 
Stocking  a  Beehive.  Observatory  Beehive  for  Permanent  Use.  Observatory 
Beehive  for  Temporary  Use,  Inspection  Case  for  Beehives.  Hive  for  Rear¬ 
ing  Queen  Bees.  Super-Clearers.  Bee  Smoker.  Honey  Extractors.  Wax 
Extractors.  Beekeepers'  Miscellaneous  Appliances.  Index. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher,  6io  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia, 


WOOD 

FINISHINO 

COMPRISING 

STAINING,  VARNISHING,  AND  POLISHING 

WITH  ENGRAVINGS  AND  DIAGRAMS 

NEW  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


EDITED  BY 

PAUL  U.  HASLUCK 

EDITOR  OF  “work”  AND  “BUILDINO  WORLD” 

AUTITOR  OF  “HANDYBOOKS  FOR  HANDICRAl-TS/’  ETC.  ETC. 

PHILADELPHIA 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher 


610,  SOUTH  WASHINGTON  SQUARE 
1907 


PEEFACE. 


This  Handbook  contains,  in  a  form  convenient  for 
everyday  use,  a  oomprehensive  digest  of  the  knowledge 
of  Wood  Finishing  :  Staining,  Varnishing,  and  Polish¬ 
ing,  scattered  over  thirty-three  volumes  of  Work,  one 
of  the  weekly  journals  it  is  my  fortune  to  edit. 

The  first  edition  of  this  Handbook  was  published 
in  March,  1897,  and  has  been  reprinted  nine  times. 
This  present  edition  is  larger  by  thirty-two  pages  than 
the  previous  one,  and  contains  additional  information 
of  a  special  character.  The  whole  book  has  been  re¬ 
arranged  and  revised,  and  will  be  found,  it  is  thought, 
even  more  useful  than  the  earlier  edition. 

Eeaders  who  may  desire  additional  information 
respecting  special  details  of  the  matters  dealt  with  in 
this  Handbook,  or  instructions  on  kindred  subjects, 
should  address  a  question  to  the  Editor  of  Work, 
La  Belle  Sauvage,  London,  E.C.,  so  that  it  may  be 
answered  in  the  columns  of  that  journal. 


La  Belle  Saucvage,  London. 
August,  1907. 


P.  N.  HASLUCK. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/woodfinishingcomOOunse 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAOE 

I. — Processes  of  Finishing  Wood  ...  9 

II. — Stains  and  Staining . 14 

III.  — Wood  Grain  Fillers  and  Filling  In  .  .36 

IV.  — Hard  Stopping  or  Beaumontage  .  .  43 

V. — French  Polishing . 48 

VI. — Bodying  In  and  Spiriting  Off  ...  56 

VII. — Glazing  in  French  Polishing  :  Some 

Special  Matters . 66 

VIII. — Wax  Polishing . 'll 

IX. — Oil  Polishing  and  Dry  Shining.  .  .  84 

X.— Bepolishing  and  Eeviving  ....  89 

XL — Processes  of  Varnishing  Wood  .  .  .  108 

XII. — Varnishes . 123 

XIII.  — Treatment  of  Floors . 138 

XIV . —Dyeing  Veneers . 148 

XV. — Marquetry  Wood  Staining  .  .  .  150 

XVI. — Spirit  Enamelling  with  French  Polish 

Finish . 154 

Index . ,156 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIO.  PAGE 

1. — Side  View  of  Wad  or  Koll  for  Polishing  Fretwork  .  50 

2. — Face  of  Wad  or  Roll  for  Polishing  Fretwork  .  .  .50 

3. — Diagram  showing  Uselessness  of  Roll  for  Polishing 

Corner  of  Framed  Panel . 51 

4. — Usual  Form  of  Rubber  for  French  Polishing  .  .  .  52 

5. — Form  of  Rubber  for  Getting  into  Corners  .  .  .52 

6. — Method  of  Holding  Rubber  when  in  Use  ....  53 

7. — The  Path  of  the  Rubber  in  French  Polishing  .  .  59 

8. — Gilder’s  Mop  for  Use  as  Spirit  Varnish  Brush  .  .  110 

9.  — Household  Varnish  Jar . Ill 

10  — Section  of  Bull-nose  Plane . 140 

11. — Suggestions  for  Border  Ornaments  for  Floor  .  .  .145 

12. — Stencil  Brush . 140 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


CHAPTER  1. 

PEOCESSES  OP  FINISHING  WOOD. 

Wood  finishing  by  French  polish  and  by  spirit  varnish 
gives  to  household  furniture  and  many  other  things  a 
covering  of  lac  solution,  with  the  object  of  imparting  a 
polished  mirror-like  surface,  showing  the  beauty  and 
figure  of  woods  to  the  best  advantage.  By  painting,  the 
latter  qualities  are  hidden,  and  to  an  extent  the  cabinet¬ 
maker’s  skill  has  been  so  much  labour  in  vain.  The 
surface,  as  it  comes  from  the  cabinet-maker’s  hands, 
shows  an  unfinished  article,  to  which  dust  and  finger¬ 
marks  would  soon  give  a  dirty  appearance. 

Staining  is  the  process  of  imparting  to  the  surface  of 
wood  a  colour  different  from  its  natural  one.  Staining 
requires  no  preliminary  preparation,  the  stain  being 
applied  directly  to  the  wood.  Most  stains  raise  the 
grain  of  the  wood  to  a  considerable  extent,  so  before 
applying  varnish  it  is  necessary  to  glass-paper  the  wood 
enough  to  render  the  grain  smooth  again  ;  this  some¬ 
times  involves  the  use  of  a  second  coat  of  stain,  after 
which  the  glass-paper  must  be  again  applied.  To  simply 
stain  a  piece  of  wood  in  a  uniform  tint,  and  to  produce 
a  gloss  by  coats  of  varnish,  is  not  all  that  is  required  in 
these  modern  days  of  keen  competition,  and  this  is 
particularly  true  in  the  case  of  furniture  of  the  medium 
and  higher  grades. 

The  method  of  finishing  most  suitable  for  woodwork 
depends  on  circumstances.  For  coarse  work  varnish 
does  very  well,  but  for  articles  of  furniture  French 


10 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


polishing  is  to  be  preferred,  as  finer  results  can  be 
obtained  by  it.  In  addition  to  these  methods,  we  have 
oil  and  wax  polishing  processes,  which  are  to  be  pre¬ 
ferred  for  some  kinds  of  work,  and  which  are  treated 
on  in  a  later  chapter. 

Choice  articles  of  furniture,  from  the  substantial 
sideboard  to  the  flimsy  fretwork  ornament,  may  be 
varnished  instead  of  polished  ;  but  such  a  well-finished 
surface  cannot  be  got  with  the  simpler  and  easier  process, 
which  is  also  more  expeditious.  To  distinguish  that 
which  will  be  worth  polishing  properly,  and  that  for 
which  a  coat  of  varnish  is  sufficient,  must  be  left  to  the 
reader’s  consideration,  but  he  will  get  better  results 
from  careful  varnishing  than  from  badly  executed 
polishing  ;  though  the  simple  wax  polishing  described 
on  p.  79  can  be  done  by  anybody  who  has  patience. 

Furniture  made  from  pine  may  be  considered  the 
only  kind  which  it  is  proper  to  varnish,  though  even 
this  is  sometimes  French  polished.  However,  unless 
particularly  well  made  and  finished,  it  is  not  customary 
to  polish  it.  Its  appearance  is  improved  by  polishing, 
like  that  of  other  woods  ;  but  as  the  chief  advantage  in 
pine  furniture  is  its  cheapness,  varnishing  is  supposed  to 
be  good  enough  for  it.  The  process  of  japanning,  by 
which  much  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  pine  furniture  is 
finished,  is  similar  to  painting.  This  handbook  will  bo 
confined  to  processes  in  which  the  grain  or  natural  figure 
of  the  wood  is  simply  brought  out  and  improved  by  a 
transparent  covering.  Mahogany,  walnut,  and  all  the 
finer  woods  used  in  making  furniture  should  be  polished, 
in  order  to  make  them  look  their  best.  The  novice  must 
form  his  own  opinion  as  to  when  he  ought  to  finish  by 
polishing  and  when  by  varnishing. 

A  glossy  surface  on  wood  is  often  described  in¬ 
differently  as  varnish  or  polish,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
rightly  so.  An  expert  has  no  difficulty  in  distinguishing 
the  mode  of  finishing  which  has  been  adopted  for  a 
piece  of  woodwork,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  explain  the  dis¬ 
tinction.  He  would  not  confound  the  two  terms,  polish 


PROCESSES  OF  FINISHING  WOOD. 


11 


and  varnish ;  but  if  asked  to  point  out  the  difference 
he  would  probably  say  in  effect  that  varnish  is  laid 
on  with  a  brush,  while  French  polish  is  applied  by 
means  of  a  rubber,  an  explanation  which  will  bear 
supplementing.  In  order  to  arrive  at  a  clearer  idea  of 
the  difference  between  the  two  processes,  it  will  be  well 
to  understand  the  action  of  a  varnish. 

Varnish  is  applied  in  a  liquid  state,  and  this  liquid  is 
a  solvent  for  the  gum  or  resin  used.  The  surface  of  the 
work  is  coated  with  the  varnish.  The  solvent  evaporates, 
leaving  a  film  of  the  resin  which  was  dissolved  in  it. 
Wood,  or  anything  else  so  treated,  is  said  to  be 
varnished. 

The  medium  used  to  obtain  a  French  polished  surface, 
although  really  only  a  varnish,  is  one  of  a  much  finer 
kind  than  is  generally  suggested  by  that  word.  French 
polish  might  be  described  as  a  special  varnish  for  French 
polishing.  However,  both  the  finished  gloss  and  the 
material  by  means  of  which  the  gloss  is  produced  are 
commonly  spoken  of  as  French  polish.  The  material 
is  thin  varnish,  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  most 
suitable  for  producing  a  fine,  smooth,  glossy  surface  by 
the  French  mode  of  polishing. 

In  the  furniture  trade  the  cabinet  maker,  the 
upholsterer,  and  the  polisher  are  distinct  persons, 
each  often  totally  unfamiliar  with  any  branch  of  the 
business  beyond  his  own  special  one.  But  is  there  any 
sound  reason  for  this  being  the  case?  The  furniture- 
trade  artisan  who  is  able  to  do  polishing  and  all  that 
appertains  to  it  will  command  a  better  market  for  his 
labour  than  he  who  ignores  everything  outside  his 
particular  groove.  This  applies  more  especially  to  those 
in  country  districts,  but  even  in  the  larger  centres  of 
population  facility  in  more  than  one  branch  of  a  trade 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  advantage. 

The  celebrated  Vernis  Martin  (which  means  simply 
Martin’s  Varnish)  produced  a  very  fine  finished  surface 
by  means  of  some  material  or  manipulation  which  the 
inventor  kept  a  secret,  and  which  is  said  to  have  died 


12 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


with  him.  This,  however,  seems  improbable,  for  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  his  success  induced  others  in 
the  same  line  of  business  to  imitate,  and  the  re.sult  is 
French  polish.  This  present-day  French  polish  is  Vernis 
IMartin  as  nearly  as  we  know  how  to  imitate  it.  Martin’s 
materials,  and  his  mode  of  producing  the  gloss  or  polish, 
were,  probably,  different  from  ours ;  but  he  made  his 
reputation  by  the  somewhat  cumbersome  processes  of 
smoothing  or  polishing  a  varnish ;  but  the  simpler 
process  now  known  as  French  polishing  is  sufficient  for 
practical  purposes,  and  only  those  prompted  by  curiosity 
wall  care  to  try  a  more  tedious  way  of  getting  similar 
effects.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  not  be  assumed  that 
there  is  no  more  progress  to  be  made  in  the  art  of  wood¬ 
polishing. 

The  polisher  of  to-day  is  called  upon  to  do  many 
difficult  jobs.  It  is  not  enough  for  him  to  be  able  to  imt 
a  clear  bright  polish  on  anything  that  may  be  brought 
to  him.  He  must  be  able  to  match  the  various  coloured 
wmods,  giving  to  the  whole  an  appearance  of  carefully- 
selected  and  joined  veneers.  Here  a  knowledge  of  how  to 
use  chemicals,  stains,  and  dy  erl  polishes  must  be  brought 
into  use.  Some  parts  may  require  to  be  made  darker, 
dark  parts  may  have  to  be  made  lighter,  or  oak  may 
have  to  be  treated  so  as  to  present  an  appearance  of 
age. 

The  unvarnished  and  unpainted  oak  fittings  of  stables 
have  been  noticed  to  change  from  their  light  colour  to 
a  rich  brown.  Observant  minds  have  traced  this  result 
to  ammoniacal  fumes.  Acting  on  this  principle,  many 
oak  articles  are  given  an  appearance  of  age,  or  enriched 
in  colour,  by  shutting  them  up  for  a  time  in  a  cupboard 
or  air-tight  box  on  the  bottom  of  which  has  been  placed 
an  open  dish  of  liquor  ammonia.  Failing  a  suitable 
cupboard  in  which  to  do  this,  chemistry  comes  to  our 
aid,  and  we  get  a  like  result  by  wiping  over  with  a 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash,  common  soda,  or  lime- 
water.  With  careful  management,  and  by  the  aid  of 
these  and  dyed  polishes,  'common  bay  wood  or  plain 


PROCESSES  OF  FINISHING  WOOD. 


13 


mahogany  can  be  made  to  look  equal  to  Spanish 
mahogany. 

The  coloured  stringings  or  inlays,  with  their  many- 
coloured  woods,  found  round  work-boxes  and  on  writing- 
desks,  are  not  all  real.  The  polisher  and  the  chemist  have 
played  their  respective  parts.  And  there  are  musical- 
boxes,  etc.,  with  imitation  pearl  inlays  and  stringing, 
which  is  simply  bird’s-eye  maple  dyed  green,  verdigris 
and  vinegar  being  mostly  used  for  this.  Again,  flowers, 
birds,  etc.,  may  be  painted  on  the  panels  of  doors ;  or 
failing  ability  to  paint,  it  is  possible  to  get  transfers 
that  look  exceedingly  well  when  polished  over ;  or  birds, 
flowers,  and  such-like  may  be  cut  out  from  thin  paper, 
and  fastened  to  the  work  with  thin  polish  or  varnish, 
giving  them,  when  dry,  a  coat  of  white,  hard  varnish,  after 
first  sizing  the  pictures  with  isinglass,  care  being  taken 
that  there  is  no  strongly  marked  printing  on  the  back 
of  the  pictures  that  may  be  chosen.  When  the  varnish 
laid  over  the  decoration  is  dry  it  may  be  polished. 

Polishing  partakes  a  good  deal  of  the  nature  of  an 
art.  Skill  is  necessary  to  make  a  good  polisher,  as 
Avell  as  knowledge  about  the  materials  and  their 
manipulation,  and  this  skill,  of  course,  is  only  to  be 
acquired  with  practice.  Some  people  regard  French 
polishing  as  a  mystery,  rather  than  an  art  to  be  acquired. 
When  the  novice  tries  to  do  the  work  himself  the 
refusal  of  the  polish  or  gloss  to  come  up  under  his 
hands  is  indeed  mysterious.  French  polishing  looks 
such  easy,  almost  lazy,  work  (albeit,  somewhat  tending 
to  dirty  the  hands)  that  the  baffled  novice  may  be 
pardoned  for  thinking  he  has  got  hold  of  the  wrong 
stuff,  or  that  he  has  been  misdirected,  and  though 
either  of  these  circumstances  may  be  the  cause  of 
failure,  it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  owing  to  want  of 
skill.  Possibly  the  foregoing  remarks  may  have  a 
discouraging  effect  on  the  novice,  but  everything  will  be 
done  in  these  pages  to  remove  difficulties  and  to  indicate 
right  methods  of  working.  The  rest  will  depend  upon 
himself. 


14 


CHAPTER  11. 

STAINS  AND  STATNINO. 

Staining  may  be  said  to  be  divided  into  three  classes ; 
— (a)  The  staining  of  deal  or  common  woods  to  match 
the  better  class,  such  as  ebony,  walnut,  rosewood, 
mahogany,  etc.  (6)  The  darkening  of  natural  wood  to 
imitate  a  superior  class  :  as,  for  example,  common  oak 
to  match  brown  or  pollard  oak,  common  baywood  to 
match  best  mahogany,  (c)  Decorative  work,  such  as 
the  imitation  of  inlaid  woods,  etc. 

Some  persons,  who  lay  claim  to  good  taste,  strongly 
object  to  staining  wood  on  the  ground  that  it  gives  an 
appearance  that  is  not  natural.  All  painted  woodwork 
has  the  natural  beauty  of  the  woods  entirely  covered. 
In  all  bare  woodwork  staining  has  probably  played  an 
important  part  in  the  decorative  treatment.  Even  wood 
of  the  finest  quality  that  money  can  buy,  no  matter  how 
carefully  selected  and  joined,  will  be  treated  when  it 
passes  through  the  French  polisher’s  hands  with  some 
staining  medium,  in  the  form  of  red  oil,  coloured 
“  filling-in,”  dyed  polish,  varnish,  or  stain,  to  bring  out 
the  beauty  of  the  woods  and  to  show  the  cabinet¬ 
maker’s  handiwork  to  the  best  advantage.  When 
veneers  are  used  in  furniture  manufacture,  the  chances 
that  stain  is  used  are  doubled.  In  modern  marquetry 
or  inlaid  work  it  will  be  found  that  the  woods  employed 
are  not  all  real.  The  old  exponents  of  marquetry  have 
left  excellent  specimens,  in  which  only  three  kinds  of 
wood  are  used ;  but  the  range  of  colours  and  shading 
as  now  used  is  much  greater. 

]\Iany  persons  prefer  to  use  the  commoner  kinds 
of  wood  in  tlie  manufacture  of  their  household  furni¬ 
ture,  and  to  stain  these  to  imitate  closely  the  more 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


15 


expensive  woods.  This  chapter  is  written  chiefly  for 
the  benefit  of  such  people.  It  is  recommended  that 
those  stains  which,  though  useful  enough  in  their  way, 
require  acids  or  chemical  and  special  apparatus,  should 
be  avoided,  as  the  same  end  can  be  gained  by  other  and 
simpler  means. 

There  are  two  methods  of  staining  :—{a)  Surface- 
staining,  in  which,  as  the  name  implies,  the  staining  is 
efifected  by  compounds,  in  the  nature  of  pigments,  laid 
upon  the  surface  like  paint,  and  forming  a  thick  opaque 
coating,  which  does  not,  to  any  considerable  degree,  pene¬ 
trate  the  fibre  of  the  wood,  (b)  Body-staining,  in  which 
the  stain  is  usually  applied  as  a  thin  wash,  which,  enter¬ 
ing  the  pores  of  the  wood,  colours  it  to  some  little  depth 
below  the  surface.  To  make  stains  penetrate  very 
deeply  into  wood  is  neither  an  expeditious  nor  a  simple 
process  to  those  unaccustomed  to  the  work.  For  or¬ 
dinary  purposes,  body-staining  is  quite  suflicient. 

There  are  many  stains,  made  both  in  liquid  and  in 
powder.  Most  of  these  are  cheap  and  reliable.  One 
gallon  of  liquid  stain  will  cover  about  sixty  square  yards  ; 
and  after  buying  a  small  sample  bottle  and  finding  it 
suitable,  one  can  rely  upon  getting  a  further  supply  to 
match.  This  is  not  always  so  with  home-made  stains. 
Stains  in  powder  are  more  convenient  for  carrying. 
The  only  solvent  needed  is  water,  so  they  are  easy  to  use^ 
and  valuable  for  stencilling  and  decorative  purposes. 

It  is  not  for  furniture  alone  that  these  stains  may 
be  used  ;  no  reason  appears  against  their  more  extensive 
use  for  interior  decoration  in  preference  to  painting 
and  graining.  Suppose  a  floor  margin  is  to  be  stained, 
and  it  is  desired  to  have  a  pattern  of  a  darker  shade 
around  the  inner  edge,  as  shown  in  the  iUustrations 
which  appear  on  page  145.  It  is  easy  to  take  up  a 
little  powder  stain  and  mix  with  water  to  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  thin  paint,  and  apply  by  means  of  a  stencil- 
plate  and  brush,  as  would  be  done  with  distemper.  In 
order  to  show  up  stained  work  to  the  best  advantage, 
the  woodwork  is  required  to  be  of  superior  class  and 


16 


WOOD  FINISIIING. 


free  from  sap ;  this  is  an  extra  expense  in  the  first 
instance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  less  expensive  to 
keep  the  wood  fresh  and  clean  when  stained  than  it 
would  be  to  apply  successive  coats  of  paint,  then  grain 
and  varnish. 

Dealers  sell  combined  stains  and  varnish  as  a  means 
of  simplifying  the  process.  One  material  will  often  do 
duty  for  shades  varying  from  light  oak  to  dark  walnut, 
the  light  shade  being  gained  by  one  coat,  successive 
coats  giving  darker  shades  and,  consequently,  thicker 
surface,  a  process  which  cannot  be  commended. 
Although  cheap  and  simple,  these  combined  stains  and 
varnishes  cannot  be  recommended  for  hard  wear.  Being- 
mixed  in  varnish,  the  stain  does  not  penetrate  the 
fibres  of  the  wood  to  the  same  extent  as  when  applied 
alone.  When  these  combined  stains  and  varnishes  are 
used,  the  cheaper  class  should  be  avoided,  as  the  soft, 
resinous  varnish  employed  will  readily  show  scratches 
and  marks. 

Most  druggists  sell  anilinedyes  in  packets  and  in  tubes 
which  may  be  usefully  employed  on  wood  for  self  colours 
only — as  distinct  from  various  imitations  of  woods. 

Their  introduction  has  had  a  disastrous  eflect  on 
the  old  vegetable-dye  market.  Orchella  wood,  madder, 
safflower,  and  turmeric,  mentioned  in  old  recipes,  are 
now  practically  unsaleable,  and  dealers  generally  do  not 
keep  them  in  stock  ;  nevertheless,  vegetable  stains  are 
exceedingly  useful. 

Aniline  dyes  are  of  two  kinds — one  dissolves  in 
water,  the  other  in  spirits ;  but  they  have  a  tendency  to 
fade  on  exposure  to  light.  To  the  former  a  little  vinegar, 
which  has  the  property  of  preventing  this  fading  to  a 
great  extent,  can  be  added.  To  mi.x  aniline  dyes  with 
varnish,  they  must  be  dissolved  in  spirits — to  use  with 
a  spirit-varnish  or  naphtha-varnish.  They  are  only 
partially  successful  in  oil-varnish  or  painters’-varnish. 
The  quantity  required  to  stain  a  pint  of  varnish 
must  be  a  matter  of  experiment,  as  so  much  depends 
on  the  covering  quality  of  the  varnish,  and  whether 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


17 


the  tone  required  is  to  be  got  in  one,  two,  or  three 
applications. 

For  effectiveness  and  cheapness  aniline  dyes  com¬ 
pare  very  favourably  with  the  ordinary  wood  stains,  and 
as  the  dyes  are  now  obtainable  in  upwards  of  two  hun¬ 
dred  different  colours,  it  is  probable  that  they  may 
ultimately  become  very  popular.  The  process  here 
described  of  applying  the  dyes  as  wood  stains  will  be  a 
simple  one  to  those  possessed  of  a  knowledge  of  wood¬ 
working  or  of  graining.  Of  the  various  woods  American 
whitewood  is  the  one  which  most  readily  lends  itself  to 
the  process,  being  freer  from  knots  than  most  other 
woods.  Next  to  it  wmuld  be  cottonwood,  basswood,  or 
good  pine.  The  wood,  whatever  it  is,  must  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  smoothed  with  No.  I  glasspaper  applied  the 
straight  way  of  the  grain,  and  the  dust  brushed  off  after¬ 
wards.  Then  take  the  dye  of  the  colour  decided  on  and 
some  double  size ;  dissolve  the  dye  in  water  in  a  pint 
bottle,  and  melt  the  size  in  a  can  or  small  saucepan,  tint¬ 
ing  the  size  with  the  dye  to  the  shade  of  colour  required. 
Very  pretty  effects  are  obtainable  with  grey,  slate,  brown, 
green,  and  yellow,  all  of  which  have  been  extensively 
used  in  bedroom  furniture  by  more  than  one  large  firm 
of  manufacturers  in  the  Midlands,  and  have  stood  the 
test  of  time  admirably.  It  is  necessary  before  applying 
the  stain,  to  stop  up  any  holes  in  the  wood  caused  by 
nails  or  otherwise.  For  this  purpose  use  finely-crushed 
whiting,  adding  some  dry  colouring  matter  to  match  the 
stain.  For  example,  when  applying  yellow  to  satin- 
wood,  a  small  quantity  of  dry  yellow  ochre  and  crushed 
whiting  should  be  mixed  with  water  to  the  consistency 
of  a  moderately  thick  paste.  With  this  stop  up  all 
holes  or  cracks  which  may  exist.  Then  stain  in  with  a 
brush,  using  care  not  to  allow  frothing  on  the  wood. 
No  fear  need,  however,  be  felt  if  the  stain  turns  white 
in  working,  as  it  will  be  found,  when  dry,  to  be  the 
proper  colour.  The  next  step  is  to  rub  down  with  No.  1 
glasspaper,  and  dust  down  well  with  a  duster,  after 
which  the  wood  will  be  ready  to  receive  a  coat  either  of 


18 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


some  good  thin'’ spirit  or  polisli  to  prevent  too  great 
absorption  of  the  stain  by  the  wood.  When  the  wood  is 
thoroughly  dry,  the  operator  can  put  in  the  grain  of  the 
wood  which  is  represented  with  a  stain  of  a  darker 
colour  mixed  with  water  and  a  small  quantity  of  beer  or 
sugar,  in  order  to  fix  the  colours.  Finally  give  the  work 
another  coat  of  some  thin  spirit,  and  varnish  or  polish, 
when  it  will  be  ready  for  the  finishing  coat  or  French 
polishing. 

The  large  number  of  colours  that  can  be  obtained 
from  dye  woods,  which  include  logwood,  red  sanders, 
madder,  fustic,  orchella  wood,  safflower,  sandal  wmod, 
Socotrine  aloes,  Barbadoes  aloes,  and  nut-galls,  is  worth 
noticing. 

Many  are  to  be  obtained  from  common  plants  grow¬ 
ing  in  abundance  almost  everywhere.  The  well-known 
blueberry,  when  boiled  down  with  a  little  alum  and 
a  solution  of  copperas,  will  develop  an  excellent  blue 
colour ;  treated  in  the  same  manner  wdth  a  solution  of 
nut-galls,  it  produces  a  dark  brown  tint ;  with  alum, 
verdigris,  and  sal-ammoniac,  various  shades  of  purple 
and  red  can  be  obtained  from  it.  The  fruit  of  the  elder¬ 
berry,  so  frequently  used  for  colouring  spirits,  will  also 
produce  a  blue  colour  when  treated  with  alum.  The 
privet  boiled  in  a  solution  of  salt  furnishes  a  service¬ 
able  colour,  and  the  over-ripe  berries  yield  a  serviceable 
red.  The  seeds  of  the  common  spindle  tree,  when 
treated  with  sal-ammoniac,  produce  a  beautiful  purple- 
red.  The  bark  of  the  currant-bush,  treated  with  a 
solution  of  alum,  produces  a  brown.  Yellow  is  obtained 
from  the  bark  of  the  apple-tree,  the  box,  the  ash,  the 
buckthorn,  the  poplar,  the  elm,  etc.,  when  boiled  in 
water  and  treated  with  alum.  A  lively  green  is  furnished 
by  the  broom  corn. 

IMarquetry  work  can  be  very  closely  imitated  by 
means  of  stains  only,  the  stains  used  being  purely 
vegetable.  It  is  claimed  that  the  stains  are  durable, 
and  that  they  leave  no  smell  or  stickiness.  Each  bottle 
of  stain,  medium,  preparing  solution,  and  polish  may  be 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


19 


bought  for  about  sixpence.  Neat  little  boxes,  containing 
seven  stains  and  the  three  other  requisites,  are  also  pre¬ 
pared,  and  sold  for  about  live  shillings.  The  colours 
employed  include  walnut,  mahogany,  ebony,  green,  red, 
yellow,  rosewood,  satinwood,  grey,  olive,  blue,  and 
crimson. 

The  art  of  marquetry  wood-staining  offers  scope  for 
the  display  of  artistic  designs  and  for  the  development 
of  the  purely  manual  faculties,  and  its  suitability  for 
amateurs  is  becoming  generally  known.  The  requisite 
apparatus  is  neither  large  nor  costly;  the  work  can 
be  made  effective,  and  generally  novel ;  and  any  kind 
of  wood  may  be  utilised,  though  holly,  sycamore,  and 
lime  are  the  best  varieties. 

Some  M'oods  come  very  rough  after  staining  for 
French  polishing;  glasspaper,  of  course,  removes  part 
of  the  stain,  but  is  liable  to  give  the  work  a  patchy 
appearance.  The  rising  of  the  grain  on  the  application 
of  liquid  staining  would  be  greatly  reduced  if  the  work 
were  first  properly  cleaned  up.  There  is  a  knack  in  this 
which  some  woodworkers  term  “  bottoming  the  grain.” 
When  finished  by  glass-papering,  pass  over  the  work  a 
sponge  of  clean  water,  not  too  wet ;  this  causes  the  grain 
to  swell  and  come  up  rough,  and  before  this  has  time  to 
dry  thoroughly  the  roughness  is  cut  down  again.  The 
wood  fibres  which  swelled  by  moisture  are  thereby 
partly  forced  back  again  into  the  pores ;  some  woods 
require  this  treatment  several  times  before  they  cease  to 
come  up  rough.  Surfaces  that  have  been  levelled  by  a 
rasp  or  wood  file  and  by  very  coarse  glasspaper  give  most 
trouble.  The  worker  who  finds  the  work  come  rough  on 
the  application  of  stain  wdll  level  it  with  No.  1  glasspaper 
whilst  it  is  still  wet,  and  then  apply  stain  again,  but  less 
liberally  than  before.  Or  he  may  adopt  the  expedient 
of  wiping  over  the  work  with  linseed  oil  before  applying 
stain.  The  work  should  not  be  left  floated  with  stain ; 
the  surplus  should  be  wiped  off  with  rag,  the  work 
finishing  always  in  the  direction  of  the  grain.  Appli¬ 
cation  of  soaking  wet  rubbers  of  thin  polish  direct  on 


20 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


tlie  bare  wood  will  also  cause  roughness.  Pumice  powder 
may  be  freely  rubbed  on  rough-grain  woods  till  a  hard 
level  surface  is  secured,  and  then  coloured  polish  may 
be  used  in  order  to  gain  a  uniform  colour.  Full  expla¬ 
nations  of  the  french  polishing  terms  given  above  will  be 
found  in  later  chapters. 

Staining  inferior  wood  in  imitation  of  mahogany  is 
quite  commonly  done.  The  method  given  below,  though 
somewhat  tedious,  will  answer  excellently  for  staining 
deal  in  imitation  of  mahogany.  First  give  the  work  a 
coat  of  raw  sienna  (ground  in  water)  and  oak  stain, 
rubbed  well  into  the  grain  with  a  piece  of  soft  canvas 
or  a  wisp  of  tow.  When  the  coat  has  begun  to  set,  but 
before  it  is  dry,  rub  it  down  carefully  in  the  direction  of 
the  grain  with  canvas  so  as  to  remove  all  cross  streaks. 
When  dry  this  produces  a  brownish  yellow  ground,  the 
darkness  of  which  should  be  regulated  by  the  character 
of  the  mahogany  to  be  imitated.  Ptub  on  another  coat 
in  just  the  same  way,  but  this  time  use  burnt  sienna 
with  glue  size  as  the  medium.  The  quantity  of  sienna 
laid  on  will,  of  course,  determine  the  redness  of  the 
mahogany,  from  a  thin  pale  coat  to  a  full  deep  red. 
Wipe  off  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  and  when  thor¬ 
oughly  dry  rub  down  with  a  piece  of  canvas  or  worn 
glasspaper  and  give  a  coat  of  red  oil.  Then  polish  in 
the  usual  way,  and  if  the  colour  is  not  quite  what  is 
required,  give  a  coat  or  two  of  thin  red  polish,  or  red 
with  a  little  black  in  it,  laid  on  smoothly  with  a  brush. 
For  bodying  up,  use  alternately  a  coat  of  brush  polish, 
then  polish  and  brown  hard  varnish  mixed,  or  a  special 
varnish,  and  then  give  a  smoothing  coat  with  the 
rubber. 

The  best  substitute  for  mahogany  is  undoubtedly 
American  whitewood  or  basswood,  but  for  this  a  different 
treatment  is  desirable.  First  give  it  a  coat  of  perman¬ 
ganate  of  potash  fairly  strong.  This  is  a  bright  crimson 
when  put  on,  but  quickly  dies  down  to  a  rich  brown  or 
yellow.  It  must  be  laid  on  quickly  all  over  or  it  will 
show ;  and  the  best  way  to  apply  it  is  to  get  a  good 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


21 


quantity  in  a  basin  or  saucer  and  wipe  it  on  with  a  piece 
of  sponge.  This,  of  course,  refers  principally  to  covering 
large  surfaces  such  as  panels  or  tops.  When  quite  dry, 
rub  it  down  lightly  with  a  piece  of  old  glass-paper  and 
then  give  it  a  coat  of  burnt  sienna  mixed  in  stale  beer. 
Do  not  get  it  too  red ;  two  thin  coats  are  better  than 
one  thick  one.  When  dry,  rub  down  again  lightly, 
taking  care  not  to  rub  the  colour  off,  and  give  a  good 
coat  of  size,  Avhen  it  will  be  fit  to  polish.  If  the  grain 
comes  up  at  all  rough,  it  may  be  best  to  give  a  coat  of 
size  before  attempting  to  rub  down. 

The  following  recipes  apply  to  the  staining  of  common 
woods  to  imitate  the  more  costly  : — 

Walnut. — (a)  1  pennjrworth  nut-galls,  1  pennyworth 
Vandyke  brown,  ^  lb.  American  potash,  1  gal.  water. 
Cost,  fourpence  per  gallon.  The  nut-galls  should  be 
crushed  and  mixed  with  the  potash,  and  the  water 
added  hot.  The  stain  may  be  used  hot  or  cold.  A 
little  brown  umber  may  be  included  in  the  mixture 
if  desired.  (6)  Mix  Vandyke  brown,  or  equal  parts 
Vandyke  brown  and  brown  umber,  into  a  thin  paste 
with  liquor  ammonia ;  thin  down  to  the  required  tone 
with  water.  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  use 
ammonia  in  the  walnut  stain,  but  it  is  better  to  do  so. 
The  smell  will  soon  evaporate,  and  it  can  hardly  be 
objectionable  if  the  stain  stands  for  a  few  days  before 
using  it.  Caustic  soda  or  potash  may  be  used  instead  of 
ammonia,  but  against  these  objections  may  be  urged. 
(c)  i  lb.  asphaltum  dissolved  in  1  pt.  turpentine  or 
coal-tar  naphtha.  This  is  useful  for  common  work,  but 
requires  to  be  coated  with  brush  polish  or  varnish 
before  it  will  polish  readily,  (d)  1  gal.  strong  vine¬ 
gar,  1  lb.  burnt  umber,  i  lb.  rose  pink,  ^  lb.  Vandyke 
brown.  Apply  with  brush  or  sponge,  (e)  2  oz.  of  com¬ 
mon  black  privet  berries,  such  as  grow  in  most  gardens, 
may  be  gathered  in  the  winter  season ;  ^  pt.  solution  of 
ammonia.  Applied  to  pine  woods  to  be  polished  or 
varnished,  this  is  said  to  give  a  very  good  imitation, 
bard  to  detect  from  real  walnut.  (/)  For  cheap  work, 


22 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


such  as  floor-margins,  use  ordinary  gluo-size,  coloured 
by  the  addition  of  brown  umber  and  a  very  little  black 
or  red.  This  should  be  applied  with  a  brush,  and  then 
well  rubbed  in  with  a  piece  of  rag.  One  or  more  coats 
may  be  given,  according  to  the  tone  required.  When 
dry,  smooth  down  with  fine  glass-paper  before  applying 
the  varnish,  (y)  When  the  staining  of  floors  first  came 
into  vogue,  the  stain  largely  adopted  was  a  solution 
of  1  oz.  permanganate  of  potash  to  a  quart  of  water. 
Though  purple,  this  dries  a  rich  brown  colour  when  laid, 
and  has  the  merit  of  imitating  no  particular  wood,  but 
gives  a  colour  that  harmonises  with  most  carpets.  (For 
further  information  on  staining  floors  see  Chai:)ter  XIII.) 
(A)  2  ozs.  Vandyke  brown,  2  ozs.  American  potash,  1  oz. 
bichromate  of  potash,  a  piece  of  soda  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
the  same  amount  of  sulphate  of  copper,  a  small  piece  of 
sulphate  of  iron,  2  ozs.  nitric  acid,  and  I  gallon  of  water. 
Boil  the  water,  brown,  bichromate,  soda,  and  sulphates 
until  melted  and  well  mixed.  Then  add  the  American 
potash,  which  must  be  first  put  in  a  little  water,  other¬ 
wise  it  will  effervesce  over  the  sides  of  the  pot.  When 
lukewarm  add  the  acid,  (i)  Extract  of  walnut  is  now 
looked  upon  as  an  old-time  method,  owing  partly  to  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  the  green  walnuts  when  cut  of 
season.  Something  always  at  hand  is  preferred.  The 
extract  can  easily  be  made  by  bruising  the  walnuts 
and  adding  common  washing  soda  and  hot  water. 
(;)  Ordinary  white  wood  can  be  given  the  appearance 
of  black  walnut  by  first  thoroughly  drying  the  wood, 
and  when  warmed,  coating  it  two  or  three  times  with 
a  strong  solution  of  walnut  peel.  The  wood  thus 
treated  is  washed  over  when  nearly  dry  with  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  bichromate  of  potash,  one  part  in  five  parts  of 
boiling  water.  When  thoroughly  dried,  rub  and  polish. 

Oak, — (a)  Wipe  over  with  crushed  asphaltum  dis- 
•solved  in  turpentine  (i  lb.  to  the  pint),  {b)  Take  some 
brown  umber,  mix  into  a  thin  paste  wuth  liquor  am¬ 
monia,  then  thin  out  with  water  till  the  required  shade 
is  gained,  (c)  One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  staining 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


23 


deal  and  obtaining  the  dull  polish  seen  on  very  dark 
oak  is  to  stain  it  and  then  varnish  with  flatting  varnish 
as  follows  : — First  see  that  the  work  is  entirely  free 
from  glue,  grease,  and  rough  places,  and  then  stain  twice 
with  dark  oak  stain,  softening  down  between  each  coat, 
before  the  stain  dries,  with  a  soft  brush,  called  a  badger, 
which  will  take  out  brush  marks  left  in  staining.  This 
must  be  done  thoroughly  and  quickly,  as  any  touching 
up  is  almost  sure  to  show.  When  the  stain  is  dry,  rub 
it  down  with  a  piece  of  canvas,  not  glass-paper,  which  is 
very  liable  to  leave  white  marks.  The  canvas  can  be  got 
more  easily  into  the  hollows  of  columns  and  mouldings. 
In  all  stained  work,  the  less  glass-paper  used,  even  in 
preparing  the  work,  the  better.  In  no  case  may  the 
paper  be  used  across  the  grain,  as  it  is  sure  to  show. 
Coat  twice  with  best  clear  size,  rubbing  down  between 
each  coat  as  explained  for  staining.  If  the  work  is  var¬ 
nished  with  good  flatting  varnish,  and  then  hard  rubbed 
with  a  soft  rag  or  piece  of  silk,  the  surface  should  have 
a  nice  dull  gloss,  [d)  The  following  mixture  allows  of 
great  latitude  in  shade  as  well  as  in  actual  colour, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  water  : — Vandyke  brown 
mixed  with  liquor  ammonia,  and  then  diluted  with 
water,  a  little  Bismarck  brown  being  added  to  give  the 
reddish  tint  required,  (e)  Another  good  stain  may  be 
made  by  dissolving  bichromate  of  potash  in  water.  By 
modifying  this  with  Vandyke  brown  or  Stephens’  walnut 
stain,  almost  any  required  shade  of  brown  may  be  ob¬ 
tained.  Alone  it  gives  rather  too  much  of  an  orange 
hue,  so  some  persons  prefer  to  add  a  little  walnut-stain, 
which  removes  the  reddish  cast  or  harshness.  It  is  easy 
to  give  several  applications  if  one  is  not  strong  enough. 
Apply  the  stain  with  a  brush,  and  allow  it  to  turn 
colour  by  action  of  light  and  air.  This  stain  is  useful 
for  a  variety  of  purposes,  thus :  Light  oak  may  be 
made  to  match  brown  or  pollard  oak ;  common  bay- 
wood  to  match  superior  mahogany ;  and  co-mmon  ma¬ 
hogany  to  represent  old  Spanish.  No  hard-and-fast 
rule  can  be  laid  down  as  to  whether  the  work  should  be 


24 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


previously  oiled  or  not.  Some  claim  that  if  it  is  not 
oiled  the  stain  vrill  strike  deeper ;  on  the  other  hand, 
experience  proves  that  if  the  work  is  oiled  first  the  stain 
IS  more  evenly  distributed,  and  that  the  grain  does  not 
rise  to  the  same  extent ;  but  it  should  be  well  rubbed 
in,  not  left  merely  on  the  top  of  the  oil.  Permanganate 
of  potash  may  be  used  instead  of  bichromate  of  potash 
(see  Stains  for  Walnut,  p.  21).  (/)  Yellow  pine  can 

be  stained  to  resemble  oak  in  colour  by  very  simple 
means,  but  if  it  is  intended  that  the  figure  should  also 
be  imitated,  this  will  be  found  a  more  difficult  task.  A 
rich  dark  colour  can  be  gained  by  dissolving  2  lbs.  of 
patent  size  in  1  pt.  of  water,  adding  some  brown  umber  to 
give  a  brown  shade,  applying  while  still  hot  with  a 
brush,  and  wiping  off  all  surplus  with  a  piece  of  rag. 
When  dry,  smooth  down  with  a  piece  of  canvas  or  coarse 
rag,  and  fill  up  all  nail-holes,  etc.,  with  stopping  coloured 
to  match  ;  then  to  gain  the  rich  brown  colour,  wipe 
over  with  a  solution  of  i  lb.  of  asphaltum  in  1  pt. 
of  turps.  Allow  this  to  stand  till  the  next  day  to 
harden,  then  varnish  with  church  oak  varnish  of  good 
quality,  {g)  Should  it  be  desired  to  imitate  the  figure 
or  grain  of  oak  as  well  as  the  colour,  satisfactory  results 
may  be  obtained  by  using  size  and  yellow  ochre  instead 
of  umber.  Pass  a  steel  graining-comb  over  the  asphaltum 
when  nearly  set,  and  wipe  clean  a  few  light  places  with  a 
piece  of  rag  slightly  wet  with  turps  and  held  in  position 
over  the  thumb  of  the  right  hand.  The  “sap”  marks 
will  be  concealed  if  they  are  coated  at  least  twice 
with  the  size  and  colour.  In  either  case  experiment  on 
a  few  odd  pieces  of  similar  wood  previous  to  attempting 
the  actual  work.  (A)  A  much-admired  orange-yellow 
tone  may  be  imparted  to  oak  by  rubbing  it  with  a  mixture 
of  about  3  ozs.  of  tallow  and  |  oz.  of  wax,  with  1  pt.  of 
oil  of  turpentine.  Mix  by  heating  together  and  stirring. 
This  is  used  in  a  warm  room,  when  the  wood  acquires 
a  dull  polish.  It  is  coated  after  an  hour  with  thin  polish, 
repeating  the  coating  of  polish  to  improve  the  depth  and 
brilliancy  of  the  tona. 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


BwrTc  Oak, — (a)  Take  Vandyke  brown  |  lb.,  ammonia 
I  pt.,  and  mix  with  water,  (6)  Mix  2  ozs.  of  pearl- 
ash  and  2  ozs.  American  potash  in  a  quart  of  hot 
water,  and  apply  to  the  parts  to  be  stained,  (c)  2  ozs. 
Vandyke  brown,  1  pt.  liquid  ammonia,  I  oz.  bichromate 
of  potash.  A  tinge  of  red  in  the  potash  or  varnish  will 
improve  these,  (d)  Two  pennyworth  of  Vandyke  brown 
in  oil,  i  pint  of  terebine,  i  pint  of  turpentine,  and  J  pt.  of 
kerosine  or  paraffin  oil.  Mix  well,  and  try  on  a  piece 
of  planed  deal,  first  laying  it  on  thinly  with  a  piece  of 
sponge  or  old  felt.  If  too  dark,  add  more  paraffin. 
This  stain  may  be  brightened  by  using  more  or  less  of 
raw  sienna,  also  ground  in  oil,  instead  of  all  vandyke, 
thinning  as  required  with  paraffin  oil.  By  some  it  is 
used  largely  for  trade  purposes,  being  cheap,  easily  and 
quickly  applied,  having  a  nice  appearance,  and  leaving 
the  work  with  a  smooth  surface  ready  for  polishing  or 
varnishing,  (e)  4  ozs.  American  potash,  4  ozs.  Vandyke 
brown.  The  potash  must  first  be  dissolved  in  a  little 
water.  Boil  the  brown  in  a  gallon  of  water,  and  while 
hot  add  the  potash.  (/)  A  cheap  substitute  for  dark  oak 
stain  can  be  obtained  by  thinning  down  with  turpentine 
good  Brunswick  black  to  the  shade  required ;  but 
unless  one  thoroughly  knows  the  nature  of  these 
materials,  this  plan  had  better  not  be  adopted.  Imitation 
antiques  are  thus  treated,  and  finished  by  wax  polishing. 

Maple. — (a)  Yellow  pine,  simply  varnished  with  two 
or  three  coats  of  copal,  or  sized  twice  and  varnished 
once,  will  be  as  near  the  tone  of  maple  as  can  be  got 
without  painting  and  graining. 

Mahogany. — {a)  Common  work,  such  as  kitchen 
tables,  chairs,  etc.,  is  generally  wiped  over  with  glue- 
size  heavily  stained  with  Venetian  red  ;  the  desired 
tone  being  brought  up  by  means  of  coloured  polish  and 
varnish.  (6)  For  better  class  work  it  is  better  to  wipe 
over  first  with  a  weak  walnut  stain,  then  a  mahogany 
stain,  which  may  be  made  by  dissolving  in  water  or  spirits 
a  little  Bismarck  brown.  This  is  a  very  powerful  pig¬ 
ment,  and  as  much  as  will  stand  on  a  .shilling  wUl  colour  a 


26 


WOOD  FINISniNG. 


pint  of  polish  probably  sufficient  for  general  use,  though 
more  or  less  may  be  added]  according  to  the  intensity 
desired.  Strain  through  muslin  before  using,  (c)  A 
French  plan  is  to  first  rub  the  surface  with  diluted 
nitric  acid,  to  prepare  it  for  the  materials  subsequently 
applied ;  it  is  afterwards  treated  with  several  applica¬ 
tions  of  a  filtered  solution  of  1|  oz.  dragon’s  blood  dis¬ 
solved  in  1  pt.  methylated  spirit,  to  which  has  been 
added  ^  oz.  carbonate  of  soda,  {d)  A  light  brown 
mahogany  colour  may  be  given  by  means  of  ^  lb.  madder, 
and  I  lb.  fustic,  to  1  gal.  of  water  applied  hot.  (e) 
Boil  i  lb.  of  madder  and  2  ozs.  of  logwood  chips  in  1  gal. 
of  water  and  brush  well  over  the  work  while  hot.  When 
dry,  go  over  the  whole  with  a  solution  of  pearlash — 
2  drachms  to  a  quart  of  water.  (/)  Another  cheap 
mahogany  stain  is  this :  Put  2  ozs.  of  bruised  dragon’s 
blood  in  a  bottle  with  a  quart  of  turpentine,  and  stand 
in  a  warm  place  ;  shake  frequently,  and  when  dissolved 
apply  the  mixture  to  the  work,  (ff)  To  stain  common 
bay  wood  to  resemble  mahogany,  wipe  over  with  red 
oil,  made  by  soaking  j  lb.  alkanet  root  in  1  pt.  of  linseed 
oil.  Whilst  still  wet  with  oil,  wipe  over  and  well  rub 
in  a  weak  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  (1  oz.  to  1  pt. 
of  water)';  afterwards  fill  in,  and  use  red  polish.  (A) 
Wipe  over  with  a  weak  walnut  stain,  and  let  this  dry, 
then  use  red  oil  and  fill  in,  and  polish  with  red  polish. 
(^)  Water  strongly  impregnated  with  common  lime, 
washing  soda,  or  carbonate  of  soda  will  give  to  common 
mahogany  tones  varying  from  light  Spanish  to  dark 
rosewood.  Any  alkali  will  darken  mahogany. 

Rosewood. — (a)  Stain  first  with  a  solution  of  1  oz.  ex¬ 
tract  of  logwood,  1  qt.  of  water  ;  put  in  the  figure  by  the 
aid  of  feathers  or  camel  hair  pencils  dipped  in  copperas 
solution  or  black  stain ;  or  add  a  little  bichromate  of 
potash  to  the  hot  solution  of  logwood  and  grain  with 
that  and  a  large  feather  cut  so  that  it  will  make  three  or 
four  streaks  at  once.  Rosewood  grain  can  thus  be  easily 
imitated,  {h)  First  coat  with  mahogany  stain ;  the 
figure  can  then  be  put  in  with  a  small  tuft  of  wadding 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


27 


or  a  sponge  dipped  in  black  stain  or  black  polish,  (c) 
I  lb.  cam-wood,  2  ozs.  red  sanders,  4  ozs.  extract  of  log¬ 
wood,  oz.  aquafortis,  I  qt.  water.  This  gives  a  bright 
red  ground.  Put  in  the  figure  with  copperas  solution  or 
black  stain,  and  tone  down  with  asphaltum  dissolved  in 
turps,  (d)  In  a  bottle  mix  jlb.  of  extract  of  logwood, 
I  oz.  salts  of  tartar,  and  I  pt.  of  water  ;  in  another 
bottle  put  I  lb.  of  old  iron  in  small  pieces  and  I  pt.  of 
vinegar;  after  standing  twenty-four  hours  it  will  bo 
ready  for  use.  To  I  pt.  of  varnish,  add  J  lb.  of  finely 
powdered  rose-pink.  Stain  the  wood  with  two  coats  of 
the  logwood,  allowing  the  first  to  become  nearly  dry 
before  applying  the  second.  A  piece  of  rattan  cane, 
sharpened  at  one  end  to  a  wedge  shape  and  pounded  so 
as  to  separate  the  fibres,  will  form  a  good  brush.  Dip 
this  in  the  vinegar  and  with  it  form  the  grain,  after 
which  give  the  work  a  coat  of  the  varnish  and  rose- 
pink.  When  staining,  study  the  natural  wood  and 
imitate  it  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  above  materials 
skilfully  applied  to  any  common  wood  will  make  it  re¬ 
semble  rosewood  so  nearly  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  the  difference,  (e)  Boil  I  lb.  of  logwood  in  I  gal. 
of  water,  add  a  double  handful  of  green  walnut  shells, 
boil  the  whole  again,  strain  the  liquor,  and  add  to  it  I  pt. 
of  the  best  vinegar.  It  is  then  ready  for  use.  Apply  it 
boiling  hot,  and  when  the  wood  is  dry,  form  red  veins 
in  imitation  of  the  grain  of  rosewood  with  a  brush  dipped 
in  the  following  solution  :  Nitric  acid,  I  pt. ;  metallic 
tin,  I  oz. ;  sal-ammoniac,  I  oz.  Mix,  and  set  aside  to 
dissolve,  occasionally  shaking. 

Ebony. — (a)  The  usual  method  is  to  first  coat  the 
wood  with  a  solution  of  2  ozs.  logwood  extract,  oz. 
copperas,  I  qt.  water ;  add  a  dash  of  China  blue  or 
indigo  j  boil  in  an  iron  pot ;  apply  hot ;  give  several 
coats  j  then  one  or  more  coats  of  vinegar,  in  \  pt.  of 
which  has  been  steeped  2  ozs.  steel  filings  or  rusty  nails. 
(6)  I  gal.  vinegar,  2  lbs,  extract  of  logwood,  ^  lb.  green 
copperas,  I  lb.  China  blue,  2  ozs.  nut-galls.  Boil  in  an 
iron  pot  till  dissolved,  then  add  ^  pt.  iron  solution  made 


28 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


by  steel  filings  and  vinegar,  (c)  8  ozs.  gall-apple,  3  ozs. 
logwood  extract,  2  ozs.  vitriol,  2  ozs.  verdigris,  1  gal. 
water,  ^  pt.  iron  solution,  {d)  ^  lb.  logwood,  3  qts. 
water,  1  oz.  pearlash.  Apply  hot.  Then  take  \  lb.  log¬ 
wood,  boil  in  2  qts.  water,  add  i  oz.  each  of  verdigris 
and  copperas,  and  i  pt.  iron  solution.  These  stains 
form  a  foundation  only.  The  blackness  is  intensified  by 
means  of  black  “  filling  in  ”  and  the  use  of  Frankfort 
black  or  gas  black  in  the  polish,  (e)  A  recipe  used  by 
furniture  manufacturers:  Logwood  chips,  8  ozs.;  copperas, 
i  oz.  Boil  the  logwood  in  I  gal.  of  water  for  half  an 
hour,  and  add  the  copperas.  Apply  hot,  giving  two  or 
three  coats.  In  varnishing  ebonised  wood,  a  little  black 
must  be  added  or  the  varnish  will  give  a  brown  shade. 
(/)  To  impart  to  pine,  or  any  similar  wood,  a  perfectly 
jet  black  surface,  either  bright  or  dull,  mix  some  black 
with  ordinary  glue-size  and  apply  to  the  wood.  The 
mixture  acts  both  as  filling  and  stain.  If  the  grain 
rises  paper  it  down.  When  smoothing  down  any  black 
wood,  use  a  little  linseed  oil  on  the  face  of  the  glass- 
paper.  For  the  polishing  medium  use  white  polish  and 
gas  black  mixed,  finishing  off  with  clear  polish  without 
the  black.  But  pine  is  not  a  good  vrood  to  ebonise. 
(g)  The  French  black  stain  is  sold  by  most  veneer 
merchants,  and  gum  merchants  at  Is.  per  pint.  It 
is  not  advisable  to  use  it  before  polishing,  as  it  con¬ 
tains  free  acid  or  salt,  which  is  unfavourable  for  polish¬ 
ing  and  raises  the  grain.  A  suitable  black  stain  for 
wood  can  be  obtained  at  any  oilman’s.  The  ebony  stains 
in  general  use  are  suitable  for  most  woods,  (h)  For 
a  very  lustrous  black,  use  black  enamel  upon  a  coat¬ 
ing  of  flat  black  paint.  A  less  brilliant  surface  would 
probably  look  the  best,  for  which  ebonise  and  then 
French  polish. 

The  following  recipes  apply  to  darkening  or  im¬ 
proving  the  appearance  of  inferior  woods  : — 

Fumigation. — This  is  the  best  method,  though  gener¬ 
ally  it  is  used  only  for  oak  and  mahogany.  Articles  are 
given  an  anpearance  of  age  or  enriched  in  colour  by 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


29 


shutting  them  up  for  a  time  in  an  air-tight  cupboard 
or  box,  on  the  bottom  of  which  have  been  placed 
dishes  of  liquor  ammonia  ;  i  pt.  is  generally  sufficient 
for  a  box  9  ft.  long,  6  ft.  high,  3  ft.  6  in.  wide.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  a  few  squares  of  glass  inserted,  through 
which  the  action  of  the  fumes  can  be  watched.  A  well- 
made  packing  case  will  do,  with  strong  brown  paper 
pasted  over  the  joints.  This  process  will  give  shades 
varying  from  light  olive  to  deep  brown.  Its  chief 
advantage  is  that  it  does  not  raise  the  grain. 

To  test  whether  any  kind  of  wood  can  be  darkened  by 
fumigation,  take  a  piece  freshly  planed  up  on  one  side, 
take  the  stopper  out  of  the  ammonia  bottle,  and  lay  the 
wood  over  the  mouth.  The  vapour  of  course  will  be 
strong,  and  if  the  wood  can  be  darkened  it  will  very 
soon  show  a  patch  of  altered  colour.  A  small  bit  of 
wood  will  do,  anything  large  enough  to  cover  the 
bottle’s  mouth.  On  a  larger  scale  you  can  try  by  pour¬ 
ing  some  of  the  ammonia  into  a  cup  and  covering  the 
top  in  a  similar  way. 

For  fumigation  to  be  effective,  it  is,  of  course, 
necessary  for  the  woodwork  to  be  perfectly  free  from 
grease  or  marks  of  handling.  Should  you  be  unable  to 
procure  a  case  large  enough  to  hold  the  wood,  a  small 
spare  room  may  be  made  to  serve  the  purpose  if  the 
precaution  is  taken  to  paste  paper  over  any  openings 
such  as  the  fireplace.  Fumigated  oak  is  generally 
finished  by  wax  polishing,  but  there  is  no  reason  beyond 
custom  why  it  may  not  be  French  polished  or  varnished. 
Some  kinds  of  oak  are  not  susceptible  to  ammonia 
vapour.  It  is  not  always  convenient  to  adopt  fumiga¬ 
tion  when  a  like  result  can  be  gained  by  other  means. 

Aniline  dyes  are  useful  for  staining  in  self-colours, 
and  these  are  generally  used  for  decorative  purposes, 
such  as  inlays.  Fancy  furniture  and  knick-knacks 
possess  an  individuality  when  thus  treated,  which  is  pre¬ 
ferred  to  imitating  any  particular  wood. 

The  following  recipes  are  in  general  use,  and  apply 
to  decorative  and  imitative  treatment : — 


34 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


may  be  required.  Should  stains  be  used,  they  should  be 
made  strong  and  hot  ;  they  are  made  with  liquid 
ammonia,  pearlash,  or  a  small  quantity  of  bichromate  of 
Ijotash,  according  to  the  tone  required.  Thus  a  walnut 
stain  may  be  made  by  mixing  Vandyke  brown  with 
liquid  ammonia  and.  thinning  out  with  water  till  the 
tone  required  is  gained  by  at  least  two  applications. 
The  stain  should  be  used  hot,  and  sufficient  ammonia 
left  to  smell  quite  strong.  Vandyke  brown  will  give  a 
useful  shade,  but  it  may  be  varied  by  the  addition  of 
brown  umber,  black,  and  Venetian  red.  A  fairly  strong 
solution  of  pearlash  may  be  used  instead  of  ammonia  if 
desired  :  similarly,  if  mahogany  is  desired,  the  tone  may 
be  gained  by  7nixing  burnt  sienna  in  stale  hot  beer  ;  and 
if  the  article  to  be  polished  is  already  made  of  mahogany, 
it  may  be  turned  darker  by  wiping  over  with  a  weak 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  in  which  has  been  mixed 
a  little  Vandyke  brown  ;  and  in  the  polishing  of  such 
stained  or  previously  painted  goods  it  will  be  found  a 
great  improvement  if  a  trace  of  colour  is  used  in  the 
polish.  However  careful  one  may  have  been,  it  will 
often  happen  that  the  stain  has  not  gone  wmll  into  the 
wood  in  some  places.  The  result  is  a  somewhat  j^atchy 
appearance.  Should  this  be  the  case,  the  light  places 
will  require  touching  up.  To  do  this,  mix  suitable 
colours,  as  umber,  black,  or  red,  in  1  part  of  polish  and 

3  parts  of  spirit,  thinning  out  with  spirit  or  adding 
more  colour,  as  may  be  required,  till  a  complete  harmony 
is  gained  ;  apply  with  a  camel-hair  brush.  When  dry, 
set  the  colours  by  means  of  polish  or  thin  varnish  applied 
with  a  brush.  To  those  who  find  themselves  unable  to 
apply  the  polish  with  a  pad,  it  may  be  useful  to  know 
that  fairly  good  results  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a 
varnish  made  as  follows  :  Shellac,  4  oz.  ;  sandarach, 

4  oz.  ;  mastic,  1  oz. ;  pale  resin,  2  oz.  ;  Venice  turpentine, 
2  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  1  oz. ;  camphor,  ^  oz.  ;  methyl¬ 
ated  spirit,  Ij  pt. 

Previous  to  staining  woodwork  from  which  the  paint 
has  been  removed  by  lime  process,  rub  it  down  with  glass- 


STAINS  AND  STAINING. 


35 


paper,  coat  the  lime-burnt  portion  with  vinegar,  and 
when  dry  give  it  a  good  coat  of  warm  glue  or  patent 
size,  which  will  make  the  surface  non-absorbent,  that  is, 
if  the  articles  have  been  made  of  deal  or  other  soft  wood  ; 
then,  if  it  is  desired  to  be  finished  a  walnut  colour,  mix 
equal  parts  of  varnish  and  turj)S,  and  stain  with  burnt 
amber  in  oil  to  the  desired  colour.  For  a  more  yellow 
colour  use  raw  sienna  for  staining.  Strain  before  using 
and  spread  carefully  and  evenly,  brushing  the  way  of 
the  grain.  When  dry  give  another  coating  of  stain  if 
desirable,  and  finish  with  one  or  two  coats  of  hard 
drying  church  oak  varnish.  Or  when  the  paint  has 
been  cleaned  right  off  the  wood  by  lime,  after  vinegar- 
ing  it  can  be  stained  with  water  satin ;  after  this  two 
coats  of  size  and  one  of  varnish  should  be  applied. 
Any  paint  brush  to  suit  the  extent  of  surfaces  will  do, 
providing  that  it  is  quite  free  from  dust  or  paint,  and 
that  the  hairs  don’t  come  out  in  using. 


36 


CHAPTER  HI. 

WOOD  GRAIN  FILLERS  AND  FILLING  IN. 

Before  describing  the  process  of  French  polishing, 
attention  should  be  drawn  in  this  chapter  to  the  methods 
employed  by  the  French  polisher  for  filling  the  grain  of 
the  wood. 

Fillers  are  used  by  French  polishers  for  much  the 
same  reason  that  size  is  used  before  varnishing — namely 
to  prevent  immoderate  absorption  of  the  polish  by  the 
wood.  French  polish,  or  even  thicker  varnish,  when 
applied  to  wood,  sinks  in  or  is  absorbed  in  places, 
instead  of  remaining  on  the  surface  in  a  uniform  coat. 
Here  and  there  it  will  be  observed  that  the  polish  or 
varnish  has  given  more  gloss  than  elsewhere.  Where 
the  gloss  is  brightest  the  varnish  has  sunk  least. 

The  grain  may  be  filled  up  by  going  over  the  wood 
with  polish  till  the  pores  are  closed,  and  some  beginners 
may  want  to  know  why  anything  else  in  the  nature 
of  a  filler  should  be  used.  The  reason  is  that  com¬ 
paratively  valuable  French  polish  need  not  be  used 
when  a  cheaper  material  serves  the  purpose,  the  use  of 
which  also  saves  time.  Woods  that  are  open  in  the 
grain  and  porous  specially  need  a  filler,  while  fine  close- 
grained  woods  do  not,  and  may  be  polished  without. 
Still,  a  suitable  filler  can  do  no  harm  to  any  kind  of 
wood,  however  fine  the  grain  may  be,  so  there  can  be  no 
disadvantage  in  going  over  it  with  one  preparatory  to 
polishing.  Though  it  may  be  a  slight  waste  of  time,  a 
preliminary  rub  over  with  polish  suffices  when  working 
on  a  fine  wood,  such  as  olive,  which  is  both  close  and  hard. 
To  attain  the  desired  thin  glossy  film  of  shellac,  which 
shall  not  be  liable  to  grow  dull  unreasonably  soon,  the 
woods  ordinarily  used  in  furniture — ash,  oak,  mahogany, 
w'alnut,  etc. — should  have  the  grain  filled,  for  they 
are  all  of  comparatively  open  grain ;  ash  and  oak 


WOOD  GEAIN  FILLERS  AND  FILLING  IN.  37 


being  especially  coarse,  are  called  by  polishers  “  hungry 
woods.”  Polishers  usually  give  such  woods  one  or  naore 
coats  of  spirit  varnish  as  an  aid  to  filling  up  the  grain. 

Before  commencing  the  process  of  filling  in, 
thoroughly  brush  all  dust  out  of  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
for  this  is  wood-dust,  glass  from  the  glass-paper,  and  dirt 
— all  inimical  to  good  lustre  if  mixed  up  with  the  grain 
stopper. 

For  filling  a  cheap  class  of  work,  many  polishers 
content  themselves  with  giving  the  work  one  or  two 
coats  of  glue  or  patent  size,  heavily  stained  by  the 
addition  of  some  dry  pigment.  For  mahogany  finish 
add  Venetian  red  till  it  gives  quite  a  red  tinge ;  for 
walnut  add  brown  umber ;  for  pine,  add  yellow  ochre. 
Apply  the  size  hot  with  a  brush,  and  rub  it  in  lightly 
with  a  piece  of  rag,  finishing  the  way  of  the  grain,  and 
taking  care  in  the  case  of  turned  or  moulded  work  to 
get  the  filler  well  in  the  recessed  parts.  Of  course,  work 
that  has  been  sized  will  not  need  filling  in. 

As  many  different  kinds  of  fillers  are  used,  and 
each  has  its  advocates,  it  will  be  advisable  to  name 
the  principal  fillers  used  in  the  trade,  and  to  make  a  few 
remarks  about  each,  so  that  learners  can  experiment 
with  them,  and  perhaps  finally  fix  on  that  which  may 
seem  to  suit  best.  All  will  be  found  reliable,  for  good 
work  is  turned  out  by  polishers  with  any  of  them,  and 
even  an  extremely  prejudiced  individual  would  hesitate 
to  say  that  any  one  is  really  bad,  though  he  uses  only 
that  which  suits  him  best.  Sometimes,  owing  to  the 
price,  he  uses  the  easiest  and  quickest,  irrespective  of  its 
quality. 

Wood  fillers  ready  for  use  are  made  for  most  kinds 
of  wood,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  require  only  thinning 
with  a  little  turpentine.  When  it  is  desired  to  make 
a  filler  instead  of  purchasing  one  ready  made,  proceed 
as  follows  :  Take  a  portion  of  either  china  clay  or 
cornflour ;  add  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  stir  until  the 
mixture  is  of  the  consistency  of  putty.  Then  add 
patent  dryers  and  thin  with  turpentine.  If  the  wood 


38 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


on  which  the  filler  is  to  be  used  is  to  be  kept  light  in 
colour,  use  raw  oil  and  the  lightest  variety  of  dryer. 

Apply  the  filler  with  a  pound  brush,  rubbing  it  well 
into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  Allow  it  to  remain  on  for, 
say,  half  an  hour,  and  then  proceed  tc  remove  all  of  it 
from  the  surface.  Hub  off  as  much  as  possible  with 
shavings,  or  wood  wool,  and  with  a  pick,  made  of 
a  piece  of  wood  sharpened  at  the  end,  remove  the 
superfluous  filler  from  the  carvings,  mouldings,  and 
corners.  Mouldings  having  sharp  edges  or  lines,  such 
as  sunken  beads,  are  best  treated  with  a  short-haired 
brush,  such  as  a  housemaid’s  scrubbing-brush.  Ee- 
member  that  the  object  is  to  remove  as  much  of  the 
filler  as  possible,  because  if  any  be  left  on  the  surface  it 
will  show  up  in  dark  spots  when  the  work  is  finished. 
It  will,  of  course,  be  understood  that  the  filler  must  be 
properly  tinted  to  produce  the  colour  required,  and  to 
accord  with  the  stain.  The  pigments  to  be  used  for 
producing  certain  effects  will  be  referred  to  in  another 
chapter. 

The  filler  to  be  mentioned  next  is  varnish,  or  extra 
thick  polish,  which  is  rubbed  into  the  wood  till  the 
pores  are  full.  This  is  a  clean  and  natural  filler,  but  it 
is  a  troublesome  one,  and  the  results  are  not  better  than 
those  arrived  at  by  a  cheaper  and  more  expeditious 
method.  Occasionally  it  may  be  an  advantage  to  use 
this,  though  for  trade  purposes  and  at  trade  prices  on 
ordinary  furniture  the  polisher  is  out  of  pocket  by 
employing  it.  This  process  of  filling  is  rubbing  in  polish 
or  thin  varnish,  and  when  it  is  dry  smoothing  down 
with  fine  glass-paper.  The  application  of  polish  and 
paper  must  alternate  till  the  former  no  longer  sinks,  and 
this  will  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  wood  and  on  the 
filler  used.  The  process  will  be  completed  much  sooner 
with  a  fine,  close-grained,  hard  vrood  than  with  a  coarse 
open  grained  one,  such  as  ash. 

Brown  hard  varnish  and  polish  mixed  form  a  fair 
preliminary  application,  but  they  do  not  tend  to  a  good 
surface  at  the  finish,  so  are  suitable  for  common  work 


WOOD  GRAIN  FILLERS  AND  FILLING  IN.  39 

only.  The  proportions  are  two-thirds  polish  and  one- 
third  varnish  (brown  or  white  hard) ;  the  mixture  is 
put  on  carefully  and  quickly  with  a  brush.  It  must 
not  be  brushed,  but  must  be  left  alone  till  hard. 

Whiting  and  turpentine  can  be  recommended  for  a 
good  general  filler.  The  filler  is  both  clean  and  econom¬ 
ical,  does  not  raise  the  grain  as  when  water  is  used,  and 
contains  no  grease ;  it  is,  therefore,  not  open  to  the 
objections  which  are  urged  against  other  fillers,  and  in 
the  hands  of  inexperienced  polishers  it  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  likely  to  ensure  a  successful  result.  An  advantage 
it  possesses  over  plaster-of-Paris  and  water  is  that  it 
does  not  harden  quickly;  some  urge  that  it  does  not 
harden  sufficiently,  but  this  objection  cannot  be  treated 
seriously.  Use  finely-crushed  whiting,  and  mix  to  the 
consistency  of  thick  paint,  but  still  thin  enough  to 
be  worked  into  the  wood.  Take  up  a  little  at  a 
time  on  coarse  rag  or  canvas,  and  rub  well  in  cross- 
ways  of  the  grain,  the  work  having  previously  been 
wiped  over  with  raw  linseed  oil ;  apply  equally  all  over 
the  article  to  be  polished.  Wipe  off  clean  and  set 
aside  a  few  hours  or  overnight  to  enable  the  filling  to 
set,  though,  if  necessary,  polishing  may  be  proceeded 
with  at  once. 

Direct  filling  with  polish  is  modified  by  the  use 
of  fine  pumice-powder,  which  renders  the  process  quicker 
and  better.  This  method  is  more  practised  in  France 
than  in  this  country ;  here  it  is  sometimes  employed  by 
the  trade,  but  it  has  not  been  generally  adopted.  It 
requires  some  experience  to  use  it  with  advantage,  but 
apart  from  the  time  required,  it  is  doubtful  if  a  better 
means  of  filling  the  grain  has  been  discovered,  for  it  is 
both  clean  and  free  from  greasiness.  Polish  is  the  basis 
of  this  filler,  the  pumice-powder  being  useful  in  assist¬ 
ing  to  fill  by  getting  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  as  well 
as  in  rubbing  down  inequalities  of  the  polish.  The 
powder  is  kept  in  a  muslin  bag,  and  lightly  sprinkled  on 
the  wood,  which  is  then  gone  over  with  an  ordinary 
rubber  fairly  charged  with  polish.  Only  a  small 


40 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


quantity  of  the  pumice-powder  should  be  used  at  a  time, 
or  the  work  suflhrs.  Instead  of  sprinlcling  the  powder 
on  the  wood,  some  polishers  prefer  to  put  it  on  the  sole 
of  the  rubber.  Whatever  method  be  adopted  the  work 
will  require  papering  down  afterwards,  but  perhaps 
not  to  the  same  extent  as  when  no  pumice-powder 
has  been  used. 

The  object  of  pumice-powder  is  twofold  :  First,  as  in 
coach  painting,  for  levelling-down  purposes  ;  secondly, 
for  use  on  spirit  varnish  or  French  polished  surfaces  for 
dulling  purposes,  thus  giving  what  is  known  on  antique 
furniture  as  eggshell  finish,  or  that  semi-lustrous  finish 
largely  practised  in  the  United  States  on  American 
organs. 

A  very  much  used  filler  is  composed  of  Fussian 
tallow,  mixed  with  either  plaster-of-Paris  or  whiting. 
The  chief  thing  in  its  favour  is  that  it  is  a  quick 
process,  and  therefore  allows  of  polishing  being  done 
at  a  comparatively  small  cost  of  labour ;  but  tallow 
is  not  a  nice  material  to  work  with.  The  tallow 
and  plaster  are  made  -  into  a  stiff  paste  and  well 
rubbed  into  the  wmod,  from  which  any  excess  must 
be  wiped  off.  Any  fillers  that  set  hard  must  be 
wiped  off  while  they  are  still  soft.  Apart  from  its 
unpleasantness  in  working,  tallow  is  apt  to  increase 
the  tendency  of  the  polished  wood  to  sweat,  through 
the  grease  breaking  through  the  film  of  lac.  Oil  or 
grease,  in  connection  with  polish,  can  only  be  regarded 
as  a  necessary  evil.  There  are  fillers  which  do  not 
contain  grease,  and  it  is  just  as  well  to  use  them,  even 
if  it  be  admitted  that  a  tallow  filler  is  not  prejudicial 
to  good  work  or  to  durability. 

Beyond  wiping  over  with  an  oily  rag,  to  bring  out 
the  figure  and  tone  of  the  wood,  the  less  oil  is  used  the 
better  for  permanency  of  lustre,  as  oil  forms  no  part  of 
polish  in  itself,  being  used  only  as  a  vehicle  to  work 
the  gums  easily.  The  true  secret  of  laying  a  polish 
that  shall  bear  future  inspection  lies  in  using  the  oil  so 
that  it  shall  always  be  on  the  top  of  the  polish — not 


WOOD  GEAIN  FILLEES  AND  FILLMG  IN.  41 


underneath  ;  and  the  final  point  is  to  remove  this  oil 
in  finishing. 

Since  grease  is  objectionable,  it  may  be  asked  whether 
water  cannot  be  used  instead,  to  render  the  plaster  or 
whiting  soft  and  pasty.  It  often  is  ;  but  the  objection 
is  that  water  is  apt  to  raise  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which 
means  making  it  rough,  whilst  the  tallow  does  not 
raise  the  wood  at  all.  Water  not  only  makes  the  surface 
rough,  but  is  apt  to  leave  it  damp,  and  if  polish  is  laid 
on  before  it  is  dry  will  assume  a  milky  appearance. 
Whiting  can  be  used  with  common  turps,  or  plaster-of- 
Paris  with  spirits,  either  mixture  being  preferable  to 
those  which  include  tallow  or  grease. 

As  tallow  is  unpleasant  stufiF,  many  polishers  discard 
it  in  favour  of  raw  linseed  oil,  mixed  with  some  polish. 
The  use  of  this  with  whiting  overcomes  the  objection  to 
water ;  but  this  is  not  altogether  a  suitable  filler  for  the 
novice.  With  too  much  oil,  sweating  is  apt  to  occur 
some  time  ;  while  with  too  little  oil  in  the  mixture, 
the  filling  is  apt  to  remain  on  the  surface  instead  of 
being  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood.  It  is  not 
possible  to  give  the  proportions  of  oil  and  polish  which 
shall  be  suitable  to  all  occasions,  so  the  polisher  must 
use  his  own  discretion,  and  he  may  as  well  leave  this 
fiUer  alone  till  he  has  acquired  experience;  but  in 
experienced  hands  it  is  a  really  good  one. 

A  little  plaster  and  polish,  without  the  oil,  make  a 
good  filler,  but  it  must  be  rubbed  in,  and  all  the  super¬ 
fluous  filler  removed  with  fine  glass-paper  before  using 
pure  polish. 

A  good  filler  for  oak  and  ash  is  made  of  methyl¬ 
ated  spirits  and  plaster-of-Paris.  It  should  be  pre¬ 
pared  and  used  in  the  following  manner : — Crush 
the  plaster-of-Paris  into  a  fine  powder,  and  place  in 
a  saucer  or  other  open  vessel ;  in  another  put  the 
spirits.  Then  take  a  piece  of  soft  rag,  and  soak  in  the 
spirits  ;  then  dip  in  the  plaster,  rub  hard  into  the  wood, 
and  clean  off.  Do  not  mix  the  plaster  and  spirits 
together  in  a  paste,  like  the  ordinary  filling.  A  pre- 


I 


42 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


liminary  rub  with  polish  before  filling  in  will  keep  the 
grain  smooth,  and  stop  the  sweating  to  a  great  extent,  as 
there  would  be  a  foundation  of  polish. 

It  is  advisable  that  white  fillers  should  be  tinted  to 
correspond  with  the  colour  of  the  wood  on  which  they 
are  used.  The  polisher  will  seldom  have  occasion  to  use 
in  his  fillers  any  colours  other  than  the  following  :  for 
mahogany,  rose-pink  ;  for  walnut,  or  any  brown  wood, 
such  as  stained  oak,  Vandyke  brown  or  umber  ;  and  for 
cbonised  work,  gas-black  is  as  good  as  any.  Light 
woods,  of  course,  may  have  any  white  filler  applied  ; 
but  if  it  should  be  deemed  advisable  to  tint  it,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  doing  so,  as  an  exact  match  is  not 
necessary. 

In  addition  to  these  ordinary  fillers,  common  to  the 
British  workshop,  there  are  several  patent  and  American 
fillers ;  but  none  of  them  has  come  into  general  use, 
nor  seems  likely  to  supersede  the  commoner  varieties. 
They  do  not  seem  to  have. advantages  over  the  ordinary 
fillers  described  in  this  chapter,  and  are  more  expensive. 


CHAPTEK  IV. 


HARD  STOPPING  OR  BEAUMONTAGE. 

Tge  French  polisher  who  does  much  repairing  and 
repolishing,  finds  hard  stopping,;  or  beaumontage, 
exceedingly  useful,  for  if  carefully  selected  as  regard.'? 
colour,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  the  wood 
when  polished  over. 

The  polisher  may  be  called  upon  to  repolish  furniture 
from  which  little  bits  of  veneer  are  chipped  off,  or  in 
which  some  bruise,  crack  or  blister,  presents  itself. 
With  his  glue-pot,  veneer,  and  cauls  at  hand,  the  cabinet¬ 
maker  might  let  in  little  bits  of  wood,  or  run  in  hot 
glue,  and  apply  cauls,  hand-screws  or  weights,  as 
may  be  required.  The  polisher  may  be  out  of  reach  of 
such  appliances,  and  to  call  in  assistance  would  take 
away  all  his  profit,  besides  hindering  him  with  his  job. 
Something  that  will  enable  him  to  make  level  all  defects 
in  a  short  time  and  to  proceed  at  once  with  his  polish¬ 
ing  is  found  in  hard  stopping. 

The  skilled  cabinet-maker  should  make  all  his  joints 
fit  closely,  and  arrange  his  nails  and  screws  in  such  a 
position  that  their  heads  will  be  out  of  sight,  and  leave 
no  holes  or  defects  to  need  filling  up.  But  he  will  find 
it  difficult  to  select  all  his  wood  and  to  prevent  any  slip 
or  accident  so  that  his  work  shall  have  neither  flaw, 
shaken,  or  hole,  and  he  will  welcome  a  composition  that 
will  fill  up  and  obliterate  all  defects.  A  mixture  of 
beeswax  and  resin  in  about  equal  parts  io  used  by  some 
for  such  a  purpose,  and  it  is  usually  made  up  in  two 
colours — red  for  mahogany  and  brown  for  walnut. 

The  cabinet-maker  has  little  need  for  such  a  com¬ 
position  as  beaumontage  when  making  new  work,  but  it 
is  a  boon  to  those  who  have  to  depend  largely  upon 


44 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


repairs  and  chance  jobs  for  their  livelihood,  and  to  those 
who  have  made  some  aseful  or  ornamental  article  with 
a  packing  case  or  other  cheap  class  of  wood.  With  such 
material  it  will  be  found  extremely  difficult  so  to  select 
the  wood  and  cut  it  that  a  nail  or  screw-hole,  or  a  flaw, 
does  not  occasionally  present  itself. 

Beaumontage  has  advantages  over  putty  or  beeswax 
and  resin.  Putty,  in  drying,  always  shrinks,  showing 
plainly  an  indentation  in  the  case  of  cracks  and  screw- 
holes.  If  used  on  white  wood  before  staining  and 
polishing,  its  oily  nature  prevents  the  stains  sinking  into 
the  wood  as  deeply  as  in  the  parts  untouched  by  it,  thus 
causing  the  work  to  have  a  patchy  appearance.  In 
beeswax  and  resin,  the  chief  fault  is  the  want  of  variety, 
the  colours  being  limited.  In  most  cases  it  is  kept  in  an 
iron  ladle  or  large  spoon,  which  is  not  convenient  for  a 
polisher  to  carry  with  him  in  his  kit  when  going  away 
from  home  to  work. 

Hard  stopping  can  be  made  up  in  an  infinite  variety 
of  colours  like  sticks  of  sealing-wax,  and  it  can,  with 
care,  be  selected  to  match  any  wood.  It  will  not  shrink, 
but  retains  a  level  surface  and  takes  the  polish  well. 
These  points  alone  are  sufficient  to  establish  its  superi¬ 
ority  over  beeswax  and  resin  or  putty.  The  greater 
the  variety  of  colours  the  more  its  usefulness  becomes 
api^arent.  It  gives  a  better  chance  of  matching,  and 
often  saves  the  staining  which  might  be  necessary  if  little 
bits  of  veneer  were  let  in. 

Beaumontage  is  easily  made,  but  can  be  bought 
ready  for  use  at  most  places  where  veneers  and  fancy 
woods  are  sold  for  about  one  penny  per  stick.  These 
sticks  are  obtainable  in  various  colours.  Beaumontage 
is  also  sold  at  about  Is.  Gd.  per  lb.  in  various  colours. 

To  make  a  hard  stopping,  plane  up  two  pieces  of  wood 
about  f  in.  thick,  15  or  18  in.  long,  and  9  in.  wide,  one  of 
which  should  be  screwed  on  the  bench.  Take  a  cupful 
of  any  common  shellac,  put  it  in  a  tin  or  iron  pot  (a 
half-pound  mustard  or  coffee  tin  will  do),  add  a  tea¬ 
spoonful  of  powdered  resin,  a  piece  of  beeswax  the 


HAED  STOPPING  OR  BEAUMONTAGE. 


46 


size  of  half  a  walnut,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  pow¬ 
dered  lemon  chrome.  Heat  till  the  whole  is 
melted,  stir  with  a  stick  to  properly  mix,  and  pour  a 
little  of  the  melted  composition  on  the  fixed  board. 
Then  gather  it  up  by  means  of  a  scraper  or  knife, 
roll  out  between  the  hands,  and  while  still  plastic  roll 
into  sticks  between  the  two  boards  by  passing  the 
uppermost  or  loose  board  to  and  fro.  If  the  loose  board 
is  made  warm  by  keeping  it  before  the  fire  when  not  in 
use,  it  gives  a  better  result.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
get  the  composition  too  hot,  as  it  spoils  by  boiling.  It 
will  require  practice  before  perfectly  round  sticks  can  be 
made. 

Proceed  to  make  sticks  of  stopping  in  the  following 
way  :  Pour  sufficient  of  this  mixture  to  make  two  sticks 
of  this  colour ;  then  add  a  little  yellow  ochre,  and 
make  two  more  ;  these  wiU  give  two  shades  that  will  do 
nicely  for  oak.  Add  a  little  brown  umber,  warm  up 
again,  and  roll  out  two  more  •,  these  will  do  for  light 
walnut.  Add  a  little  more  umber  and  make  sticks  for 
dark  walnut ;  add  Venetian  red  for  mahogany,  and  a 
little  black  for  rosewood,  and  finally  finish  up  with  black 
for  ebony.  By  varying  the  amount  of  dry  colours  any 
number  of  shades  can  be  obtained,  and  it  will  be  found 
convenient  to  make  the  colours  in  the  order  suggested. 
If  the  darker  shades  are  made  first  it  will  be  found 
difficult  to  obtain  the  lighter  ones,  owing  to  the  dark 
colours  clinging  to  the  sides  of  the  pot. 

To  use  this  hard  stopping,  a  piece  of  flat  metal  that 
will  retain  heat  for  a  few  minutes  will  be  wanted.  A 
worn-out  6-in.  flat  file  in  a  handle  would  do  admirably. 
For  an  inch  or  so  from  the  point  the  file  teeth  should 
be  removed  by  the  aid  of  a  grindstone.  To  stop  a 
crack,  nail  or  screw-hole,  select  a  stick  of  stopping  the 
required  shade,  bearing  in  mind  that  if  the  wood  you 
are  at  work  upon  is  intended  to  be  afterwards  stained, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  select  stopping  of  the  colour  which 
the  article  is  intended  to  be  when  finished ;  for  the 
stopping  itself  cannot  be  stained  after  it  is  in  the  wood. 


46 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Rave  the  iron  hot,  and  hold  it  in  the  right  hand  ;  with 
the  other  press  the  stick  of  stopping  against  it,  as 
the  stopping  is  run  into  the  defective  part,  somewhat 
similarly  to  the  v.'ay  in  which  the  tinker  uses  his  copper 
bit  and  solder.  When  the  crack  is  well  filled  and  a 
little  over,  press  the  stopping  well  in  while  the  iron  is 
still  warm.  When  cold,  clean  off  level  with  a  sharp 
chisel,  scraper,  or  knife,  and  then  use  glass-paper. 

It  will  heljj  the  stopping  to  hold  in  a  shallow  bruise 
if  a  few  holes  are  made  in  the  bruised  part  with  a  brad¬ 
awl  or  chisel.  In  burr  walnut,  or  other  fancy  figured 
wood,  rouncl  holes  are  best ;  in  straight-grained  wood, 
such  as  bay  or  mahogany,  a  straight  cut  from  a  chisel 
or  knife  is  preferable. 

A  bruise  may  often  be  raised  level  with  the  surface 
again.  Where  this  can  be  done  it  is  preferable  to  the 
use  of  beaumontage.  It  is  done  by  pouring  methy¬ 
lated  spirit  in  the  hollow  which  forms  the  bruise  and 
setting  it  on  fire,  blowing  it  out  before  the  spirit  is  ex¬ 
hausted  to  prevent  it  burning  the  wood.  It  will  be  found 
in  most  cases  that  the  bruise  has  come  up  level  with  the 
surface  ;  but  if  badly  bruised,  it  will  require  more  than 
one  application  of  spirit,  the  flame  of  vdiich  must  always 
be  blown  out  before  the  spirit  itself  is  entirely  burnt 
away.  Bruises  of  nearly  every  description  can  be  raised 
in  this  way.  A  hot  iron  applied  near  to  the  dent  which 
has  been  wetted  will  also  bring  it  up  level. 

If  veneered  work  is  blistered,  make  a  number  of 
round  holes,  or  straight  slits  in  the  raised  part  and  run 
some  stopping  in,  and  press  down  with  the  hot  iron. 
With  care  this  is  a  more  expeditious  plan  than  opening 
the  blister,  putting  hot  glue  under,  and  applying  weights 
or  pressure.  The  stopping  holds  the  veneer  down  like 
pegs  or  nails. 

Beeswax,  made  up  of  various  colours,  will  be  found 
useful.  Slight  fissures  in  the  veneers,  imperfect  joints, 
cr  places  where  the  stopping  has  not  quite  filled  up,  may 
be  made  much  more  presentable  by  the  aid  of  this. 
Reel- ball  and  cobbler’s  wax,  though  sometimes  used, 


UAED  STOPPING  OR  BEAUMONTAGE. 


47 


caunot  be  recommended,  as  they  seldom  take  polish 
well.  Coloured  beeswax,  made  up  in  the  form  and  size 
of  heel-balls,  will  be  found  convenient,  and  it  can  be 
made,  as  described  for  stopping,  by  melting  the  wax  and 
adding  the  various  colours,  then  running  it  into  moulds. 
A  few  IJ  in.  holes  bored  through  a  piece  of  hard  wood, 
about  ^  in.  thick,  and  this  screwed  to  another  piece, 
makes  a  convenient  mould  into  which  to  run  the  melted 
wax.  When  cold,  the  discs  of  wax  are  easily  removed 
if  the  two  pieces  of  wood  be  unscrewed. 

In  making  good  the  defects  in  work  that  is  old,  and 
which  has  been  previously  polished,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  necessary  cleaning  off  will  leave  a  bare  patch  ; 
this  should  be  wiped  over  with  a  little  linseed  oil,  then 
bod.ied-up,  and  a  few  hours  or  a  night  allowed  in  which 
to  harden  before  finally  bodying-up  and  finishing. 


CHAPTER  V. 


FRENCH  POLISHING. 

Varnishing  can  be  done  by  any  person  with  little  or 
no  practice,  and  is  suitable  for  common  articles  of  furni¬ 
ture  ;  but  French  polishing  cannot  be  done  successfully 
without  considerable  practice,  though  when  skilfully 
managed  it  enhances  the  beauty  of  most  woods.  The 
beginner  should  not  attempt  to  polish  any  article  of 
value  before  he  has  gained  experience  by  practising 
upon  unimportant  articles. 

Although  it  may  be  said  that  each  kind  of  timber 
requires  different  treatment,  the  general  manipulation  is 
very  similar  for  all.  The  ingredients  of  the  various 
polishing  preparations  are  generally  few  and  simple, 
and  success  does  not  necessarily  lie  in  complication 
and  multiplicity  of  mixtures.  In  the  main,  French 
polishing  consists  in  coating  the  w'ood  with  a  thin  film 
of  shellac,  either  pure  or  mixed  with  other  gums  and 
resins,  and  then  getting  on  that  film  a  gloss  as  brilliant 
and  durable  as  possible. 

Generally,  the  wood  has  to  be  prepared  and  various 
minor  details  attended  to  before  this  can  be  done. 
For  example,  the  pores  of  open  grained  wood  must  be 
stopped  or,  as  the  process  is  generally  called,  filled,  to 
get  a  smooth  surface  and  to  prevent  excessive  absorp¬ 
tion  of  the  liquid  polish.  Then  the  appearance  of  some 
woods  is  improved  and  enriched  by  oiling  them  before 
applying  the  polish.  This  oiling,  to  a  certain  extent, 
darkens  and  mellows  them,  and  brings  up  the  figure. 

The  temperature  and  atmosphere  of  the  place  in  which 
French  polishing  is  done  are  of  considerable  importance. 
Work  cannot  be  done  properly  in  a  cold  or  damp  room, 
as  then  the  polish  will  get  chilled,  and  as  it  sets  on  the 
wood  become  opaque  and  cloudy.  To  avoid  this  the 


FEENCH  POLISHING. 


49 


polisher  should  work  in  a  warm  room.  The  temperature 
for  a  living  room,  about  70°,  is  about  that  suited  for 
polishing.  In  warm  summer  weather  a  fire  is  not  neces¬ 
sary,  but  in  winter  it  is.  If  the  polisher  notices  that 
his  polish  chills,  he  must  increase  the  heat  of  his  room. 
If  a  moderate  amount  of  warmth  be  brought  near  the 
surface  as  soon  as  any  chill  is  observed  it  will  probably 
disappear.  A  small  article  may  be  taken  to  the  fire,  but 
with  large  work  this  course  would  hardly  be  con¬ 
venient.  In  such  cases  a  good  plan  is  to  hold  something 
warm  a  short  distance  from  the  chilled  surface,  but  on 
no  account  must  it  touch,  nor  must  the  heat  be  great 
enough  to  scorch  the  polish.  A  common  plan,  but  not 
altogether  a  good  one,  is  to  hold  a  piece  of  burning 
paper  near  the  chill.  An  ordinary  flat  iron  is  very 
useful  for  small  chilled  patches.  When  the  article  is 
cold  or  damp,  chill  is  more  likely  to  occur.  It  is 
always  necessary  to  make  sure  after  a  water  stain  has 
been  used  that  the  wood  has  become  thoroughly  dry. 

Not  less  important  is  the  employment  of  suitable 
materials,  both  in  the  polish  and  in  the  tools  of  the 
polisher’s  art.  These  latter  consist  almost  entirely  of 
wadding  or  cotton  wool  and  soft  linen  or  cotton  rags, 
from  which  the  rubbers  to  apply  the  polish  are  made ; 
and  a  few  bottles  are  wanted  to  hold  the  various  polishes, 
stains,  and  their  components. 

The  pad  with  which  French  polish  is  applied  is 
called  the  rubber.  Without  it  the  French  polisher 
can  do  little  in  actual  polishing,  although  he  may 
not  require  it  in  the  preliminary  operations  of  oiling 
and  staining.  However  simple  in  itself  the  rubber 
may  be,  it  should  be  properly  and  carefully  made  of 
suitable  materials  ;  otherwise  good  work  cannot  be  done 
with  it.  Those  who  have  seen  polishers  at  work  may 
be  inclined  to  infer  that  no  great  care  is  necessary,  for  a 
dirty  rag  covering  an  equally  uninviting  lump  of  wadding 
is  usually  seen.  Examination  will  show  the  rubber  to 
be  more  carefully  made  than  might  have  been  expected, 
and  the  expert  polisher  would  probably  prefer  it  to  a 

D 


CO 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


nice  clean-looking  rubber  such  as  a  novice  would 
choose.  Nevertheless,  a  dirty  rubber  is  not  wanted, 
for  dirt  is  fatal  to  first-class  work  ;  hence  the  polisher 
should  keep  his  rubbers  scrupulously  clean.  They  will 
naturally  get  stained  and  discoloured  with  the  polish, 
but  that  is  a  very  different  matter  from  being  dirty. 
Old  rubbers  are  pjreferable  to  new  ones,  provided  they 
have  been  pro^jerly  taken  care  of  and  not  allowed  to 
get  hard. 

For  flat  surfaces  or  fretwork  a  wad  may  be  prepared 
by  using  a  strip  of  torn  woollen  cloth  from  1  in.  to  2  in. 
wide.  Cloth  with  a  cut  edge  is  not  recommended  for 
this  purpose,  as  it  is  too  harsh.  Eoll  the  strip  very 


Fig.  1. — Side  and  Face  of  Wad  or  Roll  for  Polishing  Fretwork. 


tightly  into  a  wad  about  1  in.,  2  in.,  or  3  in.  diameter, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  work,  and  tie  tightly  round 
with  fine  twine  (Fig.  1).  This  will  give  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  rubber  resembling  Fig.  2.  This  wad  is  put 
into  a  double  thickness  of  linen  cloth,  and  the  ends 
are  gathered  up  like  the  ends  of  a  pudding-cloth  ;  they 
are  not  tied,  but  are  grasped  as  a  hand-piece  while  being 
used.  This  form  of  rubber  would,  however,  be  useless 
for  bodying  up  mouldings,  beads,  quirks,  moulded 
hand-rails,  newel  posts,  etc.,  and  when  polishing  large 
mahogany  doors  or  other  framed  furniture  it  would  be 
impossible  to  get  well  into  the  corners  of  sunk  panels, 
as  in  Fig.  3. 

A  well-shaped,  soft,  pliable  rubber,  with  its  rag 


FRENCH  rOLISlIING. 


61 


covering  free  from  creases,  is  to  a  practical  French 
polisher  equivalent  to  a  sharp,  finely-set  smoothing 
plane  in  the  hands  of  a  cabinet  maker.  The  form  in 
general  use  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  With  such  a  rubber 
made  of  wadding,  one  is  enabled  to  get  into  corners, 


Fig.  2.— Bad  Form  of  Rubber  and  Bad  Method  of  Holding  it. 

round  turned  work,  and  up  to  the  edges  of  mouldings 
in  a  manner  impossible  with  a  hard,  round  rubber.  To 
make  it,  take  a  sheet  of  wadding — this  is  9  in.  wide — 
and  tear  off  a  piece  6  in.  long ;  this  will  form  a  con¬ 
veniently-sized  rubber,  suitable  for  most  work ;  but  for 
small  work  use  one  of  smaller  size.  Double  the  wadding, 
making  it  6  in.  by  4^  in.  Squeeze  this  in  the  hand, 
keeping  the  skin  unbroken,  till  in  shape  it  nearly 


Fig.  3. — Diagram  showing  Uselessness  of  Roll  for 
Polishing  Corner  of  Framed  Panel. 

resembles  half  a  pear ;  the  illustrations.  Figs.  4,  5,  6, 
show  what  is  meant  and  the  method  of  holding  it.  The 
rubber  should  then  be  charged  with  polish  and  covered 
with  a  piece  of  clean,  soft  rag.  In  folding  the  rag,  tvnst 
it  on  the  upper  side  of  the  rubber.  Each  additional 


62 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


twist  will  bring  it  to  a  sharper  point  and  cause  the 
polish  to  ooze  through  its  surface.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  put  a  rag  covering  on  the  rubbers  first  used.  The 
rubber  must  be  kept  free  from  creases,  otherwise  it 
will  cause  the  surface  to  which  it  is  applied  to  be 
stringy  or  full  of  ridges. 

Though  rags  have  been  mentioned  as  suitable  for  the 
outer  covering  or  casing  of  the  pad,  some  care  in  their 
selection  is  necessary.  A  piece  with  a  seam  across  it 
would  never  do  for  a  rubber  ;  and  anything  which 
would  tend  to  scratch  the  film  of  polish  as  it  is  being 
laid  or  worked  on  in  the  final  oireration  of  spiriting  off 
must  be  carefully  avoided.  They  may  be  either  cotton 
or  linen,  and  ought  to  be  perfectly  soft  and  fine,  or,  at 


Fig.  4. — Usual  form  of  Fig.  5. — Form  of  Rubber  for 

Rubber  for  French  Polishing.  getting  into  Corners. 

any  rate,  free  from  knots  or  lumps.  The  most  suitable 
material  is  household  rags  such  as  old  shirts,  old  print 
material,  etc.,  that  has  been  washed  many  times  and  is 
not  linty.  New  material  may  be  used.  To  render  this 
suitable,  all  traces  of  the  sizing  and  stiffening  with 
which  it  may  have  been  finished  must  be  removed  by 
a  thorough  washing. 

Any  material  to  be  used  for  a  polishing  rubber  must 
be  thoroughly  well  dried.  Indeed,  the  necessity  for 
avoiding  damp  cannot  be  too  much  insisted  on. 
With  regard  to  the  substance  of  the  rubber,  white 
wadding  is  the  best  to  use,  and  this  is  readily  ob¬ 
tainable  from  any  upholsterer  or  chemist.  It  may  be 
purer  if  got  from  the  latter,  but  it  is  certainly  much 
dearer  than  any  reasonable  upholsterer  would  charge 
for  something  eciually  suitable.  Wadding  bought  from 


FEENOH  POLISHING. 


53 


an  upholsterer  or  draper  has  a  thin  skin  on  one  or 
both  sides,  according  to  whether  it  has  been  split  or 
not.  For  a  few  pence  enough  ought  to  be  obtainable 
to  last  a  considerable  time.  It  may  be  useful  to  know 
that,  if  it  is  clean,  the  raw  material  used  in  cotton 
manufacturing  districts  will  do  as  well  as  the  finest 
wadding.  Cotton  fiock,  used  by  upholsterers  as  a 
stuffing  for  mattresses,  chairs,  etc.,  is  not  suitable  for 
polishing,  except  perhaps  for  the  coarsest  work.  Even 
for  this  it  should  not  be  used  if  anything  better  is  avail¬ 
able.  Rubbers  composed  entirely  of  flannel  are  occa¬ 
sionally  recommended  for  special  kinds  of  work.  It 
is  doubtful  if  there  is  any  advantage  in  using  flannel. 


Fig.  6. — Method  of  Holding  Rubber  when  in  Use. 

except  for  large  flat  surfaces,  which  can  be  got  over 
more  quickly  ■with  a  large  rubber  than  with  a  small  one. 
The  novice  is  advised  to  use  the  wadding  rubber,  and  to 
become  an  expert  polisher  with  it  before  experimenting 
with  anything  else. 

The  size  of  the  rubber  will,  to  some  extent,  de¬ 
pend  on  the  nature  of  the  work,  but  that  above  given 
may  be  regarded  as  generally  suitable.  A  very  large 
rubber  is  not  advisable  at  first,  and  the  polisher,  as  he 
gains  experience,  must  be  guided  by  circumstances.  In 
handling  it,  moreover,  the  polisher  will  be  equally 
guided;  a  rubber  of  moderate  dimensions  is  usually 
held  by  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  fingers,  but  the 
polisher  will  probably  find  a  large  rubber  can  be  more 
conveniently  used  by  holding  it  in  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

The  rubber  must  be  charged  with  polish  for  use, 


51 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


and  some  care  will  have  to  be  exercised  in  doing  this. 
The  covering  of  the  rubber  is  opened  so  that  a  little 
polish  can  be  dropped  on  the  wadding.  A  convenient 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  have  the  polish  in  a  bottle,  the 
cork  of  which  has  a  channel  or  notch  cut  in  it  to  allow 
only  a  few  drops  to  escape  at  a  time.  Some  polishers 
dip  a  portion  of  the  rubber  into  the  polish,  but  the 
other  method  is  more  generally  adopted.  It  must 
not  be  saturated  ;  only  enough  polish  to  moisten  the 
wadding  must  be  used,  or  what  will  ooze  through  the 
rag  covering  when  pressed.  The  rubber  having  been 
thus  charged,  gather  rq)  the  edges  of  the  rag  as  before 
directed.  Then,  to  distribute  the  polish  equally,  press 
the  rubber  moderately  firmly  into  the  palm  of  the  hand 
or  against  the  work-bench.  The  rubber  ought  now  to 
be  ready  for  application  to  the  wood,  which  may  be 
assumed  to  have  been  properly  prepared  to  receive  its 
first  coating  of  polish. 

At  this  stage  the  principal  thing  is  to  get  a  good 
body  of  polish  evenly  spread  on  the  wood.  How  this 
may  best  be  done  depends  on  circumstances  ;  but  if  the 
desired  result  is  obtained,  the  precise  method  is  of  second¬ 
ary  consequence.  Let  it  be  assumed  that  the  work  to  be 
done  is  a  small  fiat  surface.  With  moderate  pressure 
on  the  rubber,  quickly  wipe  over  the  entire  surface, 
first  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  then  across  it.  Then 
without  delay  go  over  it  more  minutely,  the  motion 
generally  adopted  for  the  rubber  being  shown  in  the 
illustration  on  p.  5iJ  (Fig.  7).  At  first  the  pressure 
should  be  gentle,  but  it  should  be  increased  as  the  polish 
gets  worked  in  and  the  rubber  drier,  though  at  no  time 
must  the  rubbing  incline  to  scrubbing. 

While  the  rubber  is  in  contact  with  the  wood  it 
must  be  kept  constantly  in  motion.  An  important 
point  is  not  to  allow  the  rubber  to  remain  stationary 
on  the  woodwork  during  temporary  absence  or  at  the 
end  of  the  day’s  work.  As  the  rubber  gets  dry  it 
must  be  recharged  with  polish,  but  let  the  novice 
beware  of  using  this  in  excess. 


FEENCH  POLISHING. 


55 


Old  rubbers  are  better  than  new,  so  when  done  with 
they  should  be  kept  in  an  air-tight  receptacle,  such  as  a 
tin  canister  or  a  biscuit  box.  When  any  job  is  finished, 
do  not  throw  the  rubber  away  under  the  impression 
that  a  rubber  once  laid  aside  becomes  useless.  This 
occurs  only  when  it  is  left  exposed  to  the  air,  because 
the  spirit  evaporates,  leaving  the  shellac  to  harden.  If 
laid  aside  for  a  length  of  time  the  rubbers  wiU  become 
hard,  even  when  kept  in  a  box,  unless  it  be  perfectly 
air  tight,  which  it  probably  will  not  be.  A  few  drops  of 
spirit  put  into  the  box  now  and  then  will,  however, 
keep  the  contents  in  proper  condition  for  use. 


5G 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF 

The  term  bodying,  applied  to  the  polisher’s  art,  means 
coating  the  wood  with  a  thin,  evenly-distributed  layer 
of  the  polish.  The  way  in  which  this  is  done  greatly 
affects  the  appearance  and  the  durability  of  the  gloss. 
When  the  body  is  too  thin,  the  gloss  subsequently 
given  to  it  may  at  first  be  beautiful,  but  as  the  polish 
sinks  or  perishes  the  gloss  fades.  When  the  body 
is  too  thick  the  gloss  may  appear  all  right,  but  the 
work  is  apt  to  look  treacly,  as  though  varnish  had  been 
used  ;  besides,  a  thick  body  impairs  the  pure  tone  of 
some  woods.  The  high  degree  of  excellence  to  which 
polishing  is  capable  of  being  brought  is  seen  only  on 
the  best  cabinet  work.  Polish  on  second-rate  furniture 
is  generally  in  keeping  with  the  inferior  quality  of  the 
woodwork.  The  cheap  gaudy  furniture  which  is  often 
seen  in  shops  must  not  be  taken  as  models  of  polishing. 
The  price  paid  for  polishing  is  reduced,  with  the  result  that 
inferior  polish  is  used  and  less  time  is  spent  on  the  work. 
Although  the  best  materials  and  the  expenditure  of 
time  and  labour  will  not  ensure  good  work  by  unprac¬ 
tised  hands,  they  are  important  factors,  and  it  will  be 
wise  to  use  materials  of  good  quality. 

To  make  a  good  average  polish,  neither  too  thick  nor 
too  thin,  about  six  ounces  of  shellac  to  each  pint  of 
methylated  sjiirit  will  be  required,  but  great  exactitude 
in  the  proportions  is  not  necessary.  The  proportions 
may  vary  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  polisher,  and,  to 
some  extent,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  he  is 
engaged  on.  If  the  polish  turns  out  too  thick,  it  can 
be  thinned  by  adding  more  spirit ;  if  too  thin,  the 
deficiency  can  be  made  up  by  adding  more  shellac.  A 
rough-and-ready  way  of  measuring  the  proportions  is 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF, 


57 


to  half  fill  a  bottle  with  the  roughly-broken  shellac,  and 
then  fill  up  with  ordinary  methylated  spirit. 

The  shellac  dissolves  gradually,  and  the  process  is 
hastened  by  an  occasional  shaking  or  stirring  with  a 
stick.  Heat  is  not  necessary ;  indeed,  the  preparation 
of  polish  by  heat  is  dangerous. 

Two  kinds  of  polish  are  used.  One,  known  as 
“  white  polish,”  is  nearly  colourless  ;  the  other  is  known 
as  “brown  polish,”  or  simply  “polish.”  The  latter  is 
always  understood  if  unqualified  by  the  word  “  white.” 
White  polish  is  made  with  white  or  bleached  shellac ; 
the  other  with  ordinary  orange  or  reddish-brown  shellac. 

Either  polish  may  be  used  on  any  kind  of  wood, 
except  where  great  purity  of  tint  is  required.  The 
white  is  to  be  preferred  for  all  light  woods,  such  as  light 
oak,  ash,  sycamore,  satin,  etc.,  while  the  brown  may  be 
used  on  darker;  but  even  on  these,  white  polish  is 
good,  with  the  exception  of  mahogany,  the  only  ordinary 
furniture  wood  for  which  a  decided  preference  might  be 
given  to  brown  polish.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
however,  either  polish  may  be  used  indiscriminately. 
The  point  as  to  brown  or  white  polish  for  dark  wood 
belongs  to  the  higher  branches  of  the  polisher’s  art. 

It  will  be  seen  that  white  polish  is  the  more  generally 
useful  of  the  two,  so  those  who  do  not  care  to  keep  both 
kinds  may  confine  themselves  to  it.  Through  the 
slightly  higher  price  of  the  bleached  shellac,  it  costs 
a  little  more,  but  the  extra  cost  is  so  small  that  it  is 
hardly  worth  considering  by  those  who  use  small 
quantities.  Those  who  use  polish  in  large  quantities 
can  have  both  kinds. 

Polish  bought  ready  made  may  be  equal  to  that  made 
at  home  from  the  recipe  given,  for  there  is  nothing  to 
prevent  manufacturers  using  the  same  ingredients,  and 
many  of  them  do.  Still,  from  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  the  ingredients  in  ready-made  polish,  there  is 
some  risk  attending  its  use.  From  the  price  at  which 
some  polish  is  sold,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  something 
cheaper  than  spirit  or  shellac  has  been  used ;  and 


58 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


though  good  polish  may  be  bought,  it  is  better  for  the 
iiser  to  prepare  his  own,  which  can  be  depended  on. 
Bought  polish  may  be  thoroughly  good  in  every  way 
' — brilliant,  clear,  and  durable — but  those  who  are  best 
able  to  judge  generally  prefer  to  make  their  own  polish 
to  do  the  best  class  of  work.  Prejudice  may  account 
for  this  preference. 

Manufacturers  of  polish  assert  that,  in  addition  to 
shellac,  certain  gums  or  resins  improve  the  quality  of 
the  polish,  when  used  with  knowledge  and  discretion 
For  instance,  one  gum  may  give  increased  elasticity, 
while  another  may  harden  the  film ;  but  for  a  good 
all-round  ijolish,  which  can  be  relied  on,  many  polishers 
assert  that  there  is  nothing  to  surpass  a  simple  solution  of 
shellac  and  methylated  spirit.  A  few  approved  formulae 
for  ]jolishes  and  varnishes  are  given  in  Chapter  XII., 
p.  123,  so  that  those  w’ho  feel  inclined  to  do  so  may 
experiment  for  themselves.  ■  Shellac  is  the  principal  in¬ 
gredient  in  nearly  all.  Those  persons  who  cannot  polish 
with  shellac  and  spirit  alone  will  not  he  able  to  do  any 
better  with  the  more  complicated  mixtures ;  therefore, 
no  one  should  remain  under  the  impression  that  he 
will  do  better  if  he  works  with  another  kind  of  polish. 

Enough  Having  now  been  said  about  the  material, 
we  may  proceed  to  the  using  of  it  for  bodying.  In  the 
first  place,  the  wood  must  be  prepared  by  filling  of  one 
kind  or  another,  as  fully  explained  in  Chapter  III.,  and 
rubbed  down  smoothly  with  fine  or  worn  glass-paper, 
in  order  to  make  it  fit  to  receive  the  polish,  for  a  high 
degree  of  finish  cannot  be  got  on  a  rough  surface. 
The  rubber,  which  consists  of  cotton  wadding  with  a 
soft  rag  cover,  with  which  the  polish  is  applied,  has 
been  sufficiently  treated  on  in  Chapter  V.,  so  that 
notlung  more  need  be  said  about  it.  Work,  rubber, 
polish,  and  a  little  raw  linseed  oil  being  ready,  bodying 
in  may  be  proceeded  with  in  the  following  way  : — 

Moisten  the  wadding  with  polish  ;  put  the  rag  cover 
on  carefully,  so  that  it  is  without  folds  or  wrinkles. 
Dab  the  rubber  into  the  palm  of  the  left  hand  to 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF. 


59 


distribute  the  polish  evenly,  and  cause  it  to  moisten  the 
rag  at  the  bottom  properly.  Supposing  the  work  is 
a  panel  or  flat  surface,  the  following  will  be  found  a 
good  method  of  treating  it,  and  it  is  one  that  is 
followed  more  or  less  closely  by  experienced  polishers 
Rub  briskly  across  the  grain,  to  get  the  surface 
covered  with  polish ;  then  by  a  series  of  circular  move¬ 
ments,  as  shown  by  the  lines  in  Fig.  7,  go  over  the 
whole  of  the  work.  A  moderate  pressure  should  be 
applied,  which  should  be  increased  gradually  as  the 


Fig.  7. — The  Path  of  the  Rubber  in  French  Polishing. 

rubber  dries,  but  the  movement  should  at  no  time 
degenerate  into  mere  scrubbing.  In  order  that  the 
rubber  may  work  smoothly  without  sticking,  a  little 
of  the  raw  linseed  oil  should  be  applied.  The  less  of 
this  used  the  better,  and  if  it  can  be  dispensed  with 
altogether  no  harm  will  be  done.  To  make  the  rubber 
work  smoothly  a  very  little  will  suffice;  the  tip  of  a 
finger,  moistened  with  oil,  and  touched  on  the  face  of 
the  rubber  is  all  that  is  required.  The  rubber 
must  not  be  dipped  in  the  oil,  nor  must  the  oil 
be  dropped  on  it  from  a  bottle  ;  for  by  these  means 
more  oil  would  be  applied  than  is  necessary,  and  this 
would  prove  fatal  to  good  work. 

The  only  recognised  oil  used  in  French  polishing  is 
raw  linseed.  This  may  be  worked  over  the  natural  woods 
in  the  first  place,  to  give  them  that  peculiar  tone  that 
cannot  be  gained  by  other  means,  otherwise  the  less  oil 


CO 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


used  the  better  for  the  durability  of  the  work.  Bear  in 
mind  that  it  forms  no  part  of  polish  in  itself,  being  used 
only  to  enable  us  to  work  the  gums  easily  ;  thus,  with¬ 
out  its  aid  the  polish  rubber  would  be  apt  to  stick  or 
drag,  thus  breaking  up  the  surface  instead  of  levelling 
it.  On  any  surface  in  which  spirit  varnish  forms  a  part 
this  will  be  particularly  noticeable ;  and  in  any  case, 
it  is  next  to  impossible  to  get  that  beautiful  level  sur¬ 
face  gained  by  spiriting  out  unless  a  little  oil  is  used. 

As  the  rubber  dries,  more  polish  must  be  applied  to 
it,  as  was  done  in  the  first  instance,  with  more  oil  as 
required.  A  small  quantity  of  polish  goes  a  long  way, 
and  the  novice  must  carefully  avoid  making  the  rubber 
wet.  It  should  be  no  more  than  fairly  moist. 

Many  a  beginner,  noticing  how  tedious  the  work  is 
with  a  dry  rubber,  may  think  that  if  he  used  more 
polish  the  desired  result  would  be  more  quickly  attained. 
If  the  object  were  merely  to  get  the  wood  coated,  this 
might  be  the  case ;  but  the  result  of  using  too  much 
polish  would  be  that  the  shellac  left  by  the  quick 
evaporation  of  the  spirit  would  be  ridgy  and  irregular, 
instead  of  in  a  fine,  even  coating  or  body.  Anything 
approaching  a  flow  of  polish  from  the  rubber  must  be 
avoided.  When  the  rubber  is  not  sufficiently  charged 
with  polish,  the  labour  of  bodying  up  will  be  unduly 
protracted,  or  may  be  rendered  impossible  if  no  polish 
can  be  rubbed  on  to  the  wood. 

The  first  bodying-in  process  should  be  continued  till 
it  seems  that  the  wood  absorbs  no  more  of  the  polish. 
There  will  be  a  perceptible  gloss  on  its  surface,  but  it 
will  be  streaky,  and  the  rubber-marks  wiU  show  very 
distinctly.  All  these  marks  will  be  removed  later  on. 
It  may  be  thought  that,  if  the  polish  is  too  thick  or  too 
thin,  the  result  will  be  very  much  the  same  as  if  the 
rubber  were  too  wet  or  too  dry.  The  principal  objec¬ 
tion  to  having  the  polish  too  thin  is  that  it  will  take 
more  time  in  working  a  good  body  on  the  wood. 
It  will,  however,  be  better  to  risk  this  rather  than  to 
have  the  polish  too  thick.  An  experienced  polisher 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIElTlNG  OFF. 


61 


would  soon  detect  fault  in  either  direction  by  the  way 
in  which  the  polish  works,  but  the  novice  must  be 
on  the  look-out  for  irregularities  in  the  shape  of  lumps 
or  ridges,  and,  with  a  little  attention,  he  will  have  no 
difficulty  in  avoiding  serious  mishaps. 

Let  the  work  stand  for  at  least  a  day,  carefully 
covered  up  from  dust ;  on  examining  it  the  body  will 
be  found  to  have  altered  in  appearance  to  an  extent 
which  will  depend  upon  how  much  the  polish  has  sunk 
into  the  wood.  The  work  must  be  again  bodied  up  as 
before,  always  remembering  to  use  as  little  oil  as  pos¬ 
sible.  Then  it  will  be  again  laid  aside,  and  the  bodying 
process  repeated  till  the  polish  no  longer  seems  to  sink 
in,  even  after  the  work  has  lain  aside  for  a  few  days. 
When  this  stage  is  reached  the'  bodying  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  complete,  and  the  work  ready  for  the  first 
polishing  operations.  Before  proceeding  to  consider 
these,  however,  the  novice  will  do  well  to  note  the 
following  hints  : — 

The  number  of  times  the  work  will  require  to  be 
bodied  depends  on  circumstances.  Fine,  close-grained 
woods  will  not  require  so  many  as  the  more  open  kinds, 
such  as  oak,  ash,  mahogany,  etc. ;  but  for  the  best  work, 
which  is  intended  to  be  as  durable  as  can  be,  it  need 
rarely  exceed  four.  An  interval  of  one  or  more  days 
may  elapse  between  the  successive  bodies,  the  chief 
object  of  waiting  being  to  let  them  sink  as  much  as 
they  will.  If,  after  the  work  has  been  laid  aside  for  a 
few  days,  the  polish  has  not  sunk  at  all,  no  advantage 
would  be  gained  by  giving  it  another  body.  It  is  very 
seldom  that  the  first  body  is  enough,  but  often  only  one 
body  is  applied,  where  either  low  price  or  limited  time 
will  not  allow  of  more ;  so  those  who  wish  to  do  polish¬ 
ing  need  not  think  the  process  cannot  be  hurried. 

Still,  imperfect  bodying  is  not  advisable,  as  such 
work  will  soon  want  touching  up.  When  work  is  made 
merely  to  sell,  one  body,  and  that  of  the  slightest,  is 
sufficient — from  the  seller’s  point  of  view,  if  not  from 
the  buyer’s.  Between  the  bodyings,  especially  after  the 


C2 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


first  aed  second,  the  surface  of  the  work  should  be 
rubbed  down  with  fine  glass-paper — not  to  rub  the  body 
off,  but  just  enough  to  smooth  the  surface.  It  may 
here  be  remarked  that  pumice  powder,  used  in  modera¬ 
tion,  is  useful  for  working  down  inequalities  of  surface. 
Glass-papering  has  been  recommended  as  necessary  after 
the  first  and  second  bodies,  but  the  proce.ss  may  be 
done  after  any  others,  though  it  should  not  be  required 
if  the  work  has  been  skilfully  done.  In  fact,  the  final 
bodying  up  may  be  regarded  almost  as  the  beginning 
of  the  spiriting  off. 

Before  beginning  to  work  a  fresh  body  on  a  previous 
one,  it  is  as  well  to  wash  the  surface  gently  with  luke¬ 
warm  water,  not  using  too  much  of  it,  in  order  to  remove 
the  grease  and  allow  the  rubber  to  work  freely.  The 
water  must  be  thoroughly  dried  up  before  applying  the 
rubber.  In  moderation  the  washing  can  never  do  harm, 
and  is,  generally,  an  advantage,  though  not  absolutely 
necessary.  When  a  long  interval  has  elapsed,  the  wash¬ 
ing  should  never  be  omitted,  as  dust  will  settle  on  the 
work  ;  and  it  need  scarcely  be  said  that  dust  should  not 
be  rubbed  into  the  polish. 

When  bodying  up,  polishers  should  see  that  their 
hands  are  clean  and  free  from  old  polish,  which  is  so 
often  seen  on  them.  It  they  are  soiled  with  old  polish 
or  shellac,  bits  are  apt  to  flake  off  and  destroy  the 
surface  of  new  work.  This  may  be  an  appropriate 
place  to  say  that  any  polish  which  sticks  to  the  hands 
may  be  washed  away  with  hot  water  and  soda,  or  with 
methylated  spirit. 

The  body  should  be  thin,  as  it  is  not  so  much  the 
quantity  of  body  on  the  wood  as  its  quality  that  is 
important ;  it  is  also  essential  that  it  should  be  applied 
with  sufficient  intervals  between  the  successive  bodies 
to  allow  of  sinkage. 

Another  important  matter  is  to  dry  the  rubbers  well  by 
working  them  on  each  body  till  dry,  and  not  to  moisten 
them  frequently.  By  this  means  the  film  of  shellac  is 
kept  thin.  Neither  a  wet  nor  a  dry  rubber  should  on  any 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF. 


63 


account  be  allowed  to  stand  on  a  surface  being  polished. 
The  rubber  must  be  kept  moving,  and  should  glide 
gradually  on  to  the  work,  not  be  dabbed  down  on  it. 

In  the  initial  stages  of  bodying,  care  in  this  respect  is 
not  so  important  as  later  on,  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary.  The  same  precaution  should  be  used  when 
lifting  the  rubber  from  the  work. 

For  the  guidance  of  beginners,  it  may  be  stated 
that  if  they  take  care  of  the  edges  of  the  work  the 
rest  of  the  surface  will  look  after  itself.  The  reason  is 
that  the  edges  are  apt  to  be  somewhat  neglected,  and 
the  polish  to  be  less  there  than  elsewhere.  The  secret  ^ 
of  a  good  durable  polish  depends  primarily  on  a  good 
equal  body  over  all  portions,  and  this,  in  its  turn,  on 
sufficient  time  having  been  allowed  for  sinkage. 

The  final  operation  in  French  polishing,  by  which 
the  gloss  is  put  on  the  body  previously  applied, 
is  known  as  spiriting  off.  In  this  operation  rubber 
marks  and  smears  of  all  kinds  are  removed,  and  the 
beautiful  surface,  known  as  French  polish,  is  the  result. 
Bodying  is  important  so  far  as  durability  is  concerned, 
but  spiriting  is  more  so  vnth  regard  to  finish.  If  the 
worker  fails  in  spiriting,  his  previous  efforts  will,  to  a 
great  extent,  have  been  in  vain.  Disregarding  staining, 
darkening,  and  other  processes,  with  which  a  good 
polisher  should  be  acquainted,  the  spiriting  is  perhaps 
the  most  severe  test  of  skill  in  the  whole  process  of 
polishing ;  and  a  man  who  can  manage  this  part  of 
the  work  really  well  may  bo  considered  a  competent 
polisher. 

The  first  operation  to  be  described  in  the  process 
of  spiriting  off  partakes  very  much  of  the  nature  of 
bodying  in.  At  the  beginning  it  is  bodying,  and  at  the 
end  spiriting.  The  two  processes  merge  one  into  the 
other.  There  is  no  abrupt  break,  as  between  filling 
and  bodying,  except  for  the  intermediate  stage,  al¬ 
though  the  processes  are  well  defined,  both  in  character 
and  purpose.  This  intermediate  stage  is  not  always 
practised,  but  it  is  recommended  when  good  work  is 


64 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


wanted.  Briefly,  spiriting  ofi"  consists  in  washing  the 
bodied  surface  with  methylated  spirit.  This  being  under¬ 
stood,  the  final  bodying  up,  or  first  spiriting  off,  which¬ 
ever  this  process  may  be  called,  consists  in  gradually 
reducing  the  quantity  of  polish  in  the  rubber,  and 
supplying  its  place  with  spirit.  The  polish  is  gradually 
reduced  by  the  addition  of  spirit  till  all  the  polish  has 
been  worked  out  of  the  rubber.  The  rubber  may  be 
charged,  first  with  three  parts  polish  and  one  part 
spirit ;  next  time  equal  quantities  ;  the  third  time  three 
parts  spirit  and  one  part  polish  ;  and  the  fourth  charg¬ 
ing  will  be  with  spirit  only.  It  does  not  follow  that 
these  proportions  need  be  strictly  observed,  nor  are  they 
so  in  practice,  but  this  example  illustrates  the  process. 
The  last  rubber  will  be  almost  free  from  polish,  and  it 
should  be  worked  till  it  is  dry,  or  nearly  so. 

At  this  stage  spiriting  proper  may  begin,  and  a  fresh 
rubber  should  be  used.  It  need  not  be  a  new  one,  but 
it  should  be  one  which  has  been  used  only  for  spiriting, 
and  which  has  no  polish  on  it.  It  will  be  better  if  it 
has  three  or  four  coverings  of  rag  on  its  face,  which  can 
be  removed  as  they  dry.  If  only  one  cover  is  used  the 
spirit  is  apt  to  evaporate  too  quickly.  The  spirit  in  the 
rubber  has  a  tendency  to  partially  dissolve  the  shellac 
or  body  on  the  wood.  This  it  does  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  unless  the  rubber  is  made  too  wet,  when  there 
is  danger  of  not  only  spiriting  and  smoothing  the 
surface,  but  of  actually  washing  away  the  body.  This 
mishap  must  be  carefully  guarded  against.  There  should 
be  enough  spirit  to  allow  the  surface  of  the  body  to  be 
softened  and  smoothed,  but  no  more,  and  the  rubbing 
should  be  uniform,  and  not  more  in  one  place  than  in 
another.  There  is  hardly  any  likelihood  of  the  novice 
erring  by  using  too  little  spirit,  so  he  may  be  reminded  that 
the  less  of  it  there  is  in  the  rubber  at  a  time  the  better. 
The  rubbing  should  be  gentle  at  first,  becoming  harder 
as  the  spirit  dries  oflf,  and  oil  must  not  be  used  on  the 
rubber  face,  for  when  there  is  oil  either  on  the  rubber 
or  on  the  work,  the  polish  cannot  be  brought  up. 


BODYING  IN  AND  SPIRITING  OFF. 


65 


The  chief  cause  of  failure  lies  in  getting  the  spirit- 
rubber  too  wet,  and  so  softening  and  tearing  up  the 
gums.  Many  meet  with  success  by  dispensing  with 
it,  using  instead  a  swab  of  clean,  soft  rag,  fairly  damp 
(not  wet)  with  methylated  spirit. 

If  the  spiriting-off  process  is  being  done  correctly 
the  gloss  will  soon  begin  to  appear,  and  when  it  seems 
approaching  a  finished  condition,  the  rubber  ought  to 
be  moved  only  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  and  not 
across  it  nor  with  circular  motion.  The  final  touches 
should  be  given  with  the  soft  rubber  rag  alone,  care 
being  taken  not  to  scratch  the  surface,  which  is  now 
softened  by  the  action  of  the  spirit.  The  surface  will 
gradually  harden,  but  for  a  time  it  should  be  handled 
with  care,  and  nothing  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact 
with  it,  or  it  is  very  likely  to  be  marked.  It  should 
also  be  protected  from  dust,  for  any  settling  on  it  may 
be  retained  by  the  polish,  the  lustre  of  which  would 
certainly  sufiTer. 

Cabinet-makers,  and  perhaps  dealers  in  furniture, 
who  do  not  keep  an  experienced  polisher,  or  who  may  not 
be  able  to  get  their  work  done  out,  may  be  reminded 
that,  circumstances  permitting,  polished  furniture  should 
be  wiped  over  with  a  spirit-rubber  an  hour  or  two  before 
it  is  sent  home,  to  freshen  it  up.  If  the  surface  is  at  all 
soft,  neither  packing  mats,  nor  anything  else  likely  to 
injure  it,  should  be  allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  it. 
The  polishing  on  many  things  sent  long  journeys  is 
often  greatly  disfigured  from  mat  and  other  markings, 
hence  it  is  wise  to  keep  the  goods  back  for  packing  next 
day,  to  enable  the  surface  to  harden,  as  such  disfigure¬ 
ments  are  not  easily  removed  except  by  experienced 
workers. 


E 


66 


CHAPTER  VII. 

GLAZING  IN  FRENCH  POLISHING  j  SOME  SPECIAL 
MATTERS. 

Glazing,  though  an  imitation,  has  a  recognised  accept¬ 
ance  among  polishers.  It  is  remarkably  convenient 
occasionally,  and  in  some  cases  possesses  an  advantage 
over  spiriting,  so  that  it  may  fairly  be  classed  among 
the  ordinary  processes  of  polishing.  When  done  in 
moderation,  glazing  is  as  useful  on  furniture  carving  as 
the  application  of  spirit  varnish.  Such  work  is  com¬ 
monly  said,  and  justly,  to  be  French  polished.  The  real 
objection  to  glaze  finish  is  that,  though  at  first  the 
appearance  is  equal,  it  is  not  so  durable  as  the  other. 
Glaze  may  be  said  to  be  even  superior  to  badly-spirited 
finish,  and  here  is  the  chief  claim  it  has  for  notice.  It 
is  seldom  that  a  casual  polisher  can  manage  to  do 
spiriting  thoroughly,  for  the  reason  that  he  has  not 
sufficient  opportunity  of  acquiring  practice. 

Nevertheless,  finishing  by  means  of  glaze  is  not  so 
good  as  the  method  by  spiriting,  when  the  latter  is  well 
done,  and  should  be  considered  as  a  means  of  getting 
the  same  effect  easily  and  quickly — an  imitation,  in  fact, 
of  the  real  thing ;  the  difference  between  the  spirit  and 
glaze  finishes  is  that  in  the  one  case  the  effect  is  produced 
by  friction,  in  the  other  by  the  addition  of  a  thin  fine 
varnish  to  the  surface  of  the  body  of  polish.  In  the 
former  case  the  polish  itself  is  polished  ;  in  the  latter  it 
is  varnished  with  a  mixture  known  commonly  as  glaze, 
but  to  which  other  names  are  sometimes  given. 

Among  polishers  who  command  a  fair  price  for  their 
work,  glaze  is  of  comparatively  limited  application,  and 
is  confined  to  those  parts  where  the  spirit-rubber  cannot 
be  conveniently  used,  or  where  its  use  is  not  necessary. 
Instances  of  such  may  be  found  in  chair-rails  and 
various  parts  of  the  frame.  These  are  usually  polished, 


GLAZING  IN  rEENCH  POLISHING. 


67 


more  or  less,  before  the  chair  is  upholstered,  or,  at  any  rate, 
before  the  outer  covering  is  put  on,  the  finishing  being 
almost  necessarily  done  last  of  all.  The  less  the  chair 
is  handled  by  the  polisher  the  better,  especially  if  the 
covering  is  a  delicate  one,  for  there  is  leas  risk  of  injury 
with  one  or  two  wipes  over  with  the  glaze  rubber  than 
with  the  more  prolonged  spiriting. 

Glaze  may  be  used  with  advantage  in  inlaid  work, 
where  the  inlay  is  slightly,  though  perhaps  not  in¬ 
tentionally,  higher  than  the  surrounding  wood.  In 
such  a  case  it  is  better  to  resort  to  glaze  than  to  finish 
with  the  spirit  rubber.  On  fretwork,  also,  glaze  may 
often  be  used  vsdth  advantage,  and,  generally,  it  is 
unobjectionable  on  parts  which  are  not  subject  to  wear 
and  tear.  It  will  stand  a  moderate  amount  of  handling, 
but  not  so  much  as  good  hard  spirited-off  polish,  and 
the  lustre  is  not  so  durable. 

Glaze,  under  one  or  other  of  its  different  names,  may 
be  bought  ready  made,  but  for  reasons  similar  to  those 
given  in  connection  with  French  polish,  the  home-made 
article  is  to  be  recommended.  The  preparation  of  glaze 
is  simple,  the  ingredients  being  gum  benzoin  and 
methylated  spirit.  After  the  benzoin  is  dissolved,  the 
solution  should  be  strained  through  muslin  to  free  it 
from  foreign  matter.  The  proportions  may  vary,  but 
those  given  for  polish  do  very  weU,  and  with  the 
substitution  of  crushed  benzoin  for  shellac  the  process 
of  making  is  exactly  the  same. 

Gum  benzoin  differs  greatly  in  quality,  but  the  best 
should  be  used  by  the  polisher.  Compared  with  lac  it 
is  expensive,  so  that  the  saving  which  is  attributed  to 
its  use  is  mainly  in  time,  which  is  money,  at  least  from  a 
trade  point  of  view.  Cheap  benzoin  is  not  to  be  relied 
i  on,  and  in  a  strange  place  an  experienced  polisher  would 
I  look  with  suspicion  on  any  offered  at  a  very  low  price, 
t  however  satisfactory  its  appearance.  Where  material 
j  is  liable  to  adulteration,  the  best  way  to  avoid  imposi- 
j  tion  is  to  go  to  a  reliable  dealer  and  to  pay  a  fair  price. 

Glaze,  as  used  by  French  polishers,  can  be  bought 


68 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


ready  made  at  most  drysaltery  stores,  as  patent  glaze, 
at  from  8s.  to  16s.  per  gallon,  according  to  quality  and 
age ;  it  improves  with  age.  To  make  the  genuine 
article,  dissolve  6  or  8  ounces  of  best  gum  benzoin  (cost¬ 
ing  2s.  6d.  per  pound)  in  1  pint  of  methylated  spirit. 
Keep  it  in  a  closely  stoppered  bottle,  otherwise  the  spirit 
will  evaporate  quickly. 

Glaze  may  be  applied  to  the  wood  with  either 
rubber,  sponge,  or  brush ;  in  most  cases  the  rubber 
is  the  best  medium,  and  is  most  commonly  used. 
The  glaze  is  painted  on  the  surface  rather  than 
rubbed  into  the  work,  which  must  have  been  pre¬ 
viously  bodied  in.  There  seems  to  be  an  idea  that  glaze 
or  something  put  on  bare  wood  will  cause  a  gloss  right 
off ;  but  there  is  nothing  that  will  do  this.  The  only 
method  by  which  a  satisfactory  polish  can  be  got  on 
the  surface  of  wood  is  either  by  varnish  or  by  bodying 
in  and  polish. 

When  using  glaze,  the  rubber  should  be  made  wetter 
than  for  polish  or  spirit ;  but  still  there  should  not  be 
sufficient  to  drip  from  it.  It  should  glaze  or  wet  the 
wood  when  the  rubber  is  very  lightly  pressed  on  it. 
One  or  two  wipes  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  with  a  somewhat  quick  motion,  will  put  the 
glaze  on.  Always  let  the  glaze  dry  before  applying  the 
rubber  again  to  the  same  place.  The  coats  raay  be 
repeated  till  the  gloss  is  satisfactory,  but  the  film  of 
glaze  should  never  be  made  a  thick  one. 

If  preferred,  a  sponge  may  be  used  exactly  as  a 
rubber  would  be,  but  it  is  questionable  if  there  is  any 
advantage  gained ;  it  is  rather  a  matter  of  fancy.  When 
a  brush  is  used,  the  glaze  may  be  applied  as  a  varnish 
pure  and  simple.  With  a  brush  a  mixture  of  glaze  and 
French  polish,  either  white  or  brown,  according  to  the 
work,  in  equal  quantities,  may  be  used  with  advantage. 

Glaze  that  is  not  so  satisfactory  in  appearance  as  it 
should  be,  may  sometimes  be  improved  by  passing  a 
spirit-rubber  lightly  over  it,  though  this  should  be  done 
with  great  caution,  to  avoid  washing  it  off.  When 


GLAZING  IN  FKENCH  POLISHING. 


C9 


carefully  and  skilfully  done,  there  can  be  little  doubt 
that  a  glazed  surface  may  be  often,  if  not  always  im¬ 
proved  by  slightly  spiriting  it. 

To  glaze  a  wide  surface,  see  that  it  is  free  from  dull 
streaks  and  ridges  and  oil,  and  the  rubber  soft  and 
free  from  fluff.  Apply  the  glaze  as  evenly  as  possible, 
going  over  the  surface  several  times,  until  the  rubber 
is  nearly  dry ;  then,  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  oil 
and  a  little  spirits,  go  over  the  glaze,  very  lightly 
at  first,  varying  the  direction  of  the  rubber  to  avoid 
ridges.  A  dull,  even  surface  may  be  obtained  by  adding 
one-third  to  one-half  of  sandarach  to  the  solution  of 
benzoin,  and  using  the  rubber  only  damp — not  saturated. 

Old  French  polished  work  may  often  be  revived  by 
being  lightly  gone  over  with  glaze  after  the  surface  has 
been  washed  and  cleaned  with  warm  water.  This  treat¬ 
ment  is  often  considerably  better  than  that  commonly 
adopted  with  furniture  pastes,  polishes,  creams,  and 
revivers  of  various  kinds. 

Some  special  matters  will  now  receive  attention. 

It  is  assumed  that  some  mahogany  chairs  that  are  in¬ 
laid  with  satinwood  and  boxwood  are  to  be  polished ; 
the  mahogany  is  to  stand  out  much  darker  than  at 
present,  but  the  inlay  must  not  be  altered.  Considerable 
experience  and  practice  are  required  in  the  polishing  of 
furniture  woods  in  order  to  ensure  success.  The  desired 
result  may  be  obtained  in  several  ways,  but  the  method 
that  best  suits  special  requirments  must  depend  largely 
on  the  skill  of  the  operator.  The  inlays  may  be  coated 
several  times  with  a  thin  transparent  spirit  varnish,  and 
thus  protected  from  stain  and  grain-filler.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  grain  filler  may  be  used  only  on  those  portions  of 
the  wood  that  do  not  contain  inlay,  or  may  be  omitted 
altogether,  and  varnish  used  for  filling  up  the  grain  and 
building  up  a  surface.  Another  method  is  to  wipe  over 
with  raw  linseed  oil,  then  protect  the  inlay  with  several 
rubbings  of  white  or  transparent  polish  ;  if  the  mahogany 
is  of  open  grain,  use  a  grain-filler,  wipe  quite  clean, 
body  up  again,  and  then  colour  the  mahogany  if  it  is  not 


70 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


already  dark  enougli.  Another  method  is  to  disregard 
the  inlay  until  the  mahogany  has  been  worked  up  to  the 
desired  colour,  then  with  a  sharp  narrow  chisel  or  other 
suitable  tool  scrape  the  surface  of  the  inlays  (^uite  clean, 
and  finish  the  work  with  white  or  transparent  polish. 
In  factories,  much  of  this  trouble  would  be  unnecessary^ 
because  the  mahogany  would  be  darkened  sufficiently  by 
the  action  of  ammonia  fumes,  which  is  a  simple  process 
when  a  fuming  room  is  available.  In  darkening  mahogany 
those  stains  are  the  most  useful  that  act  directly  on 
the  bare  wood  (if  fuming  is  out  of  the  question).  These 
stains  comprise  a  weak  walnut  stain,  a  bichromate  stain, 
or  a  permanganate  stain.  If  the  colouring  is  to  be 
done  during  the  process  of  polishing,  suitable  colour  pig¬ 
ments,  such  as  rose  pink,  Venetian  red,  lampblack,  and 
red  stain  (which  is  made  by  dissolving  w  oz.  of  bismarck 
in  i  pt.  of  methylated  spirits)  must  be  carefully  blended 
together  in  I  part  of  polish  and  3  parts  of  spirit  until  the 
desired  tint  is  obtained.  Give  at  least  two  applications, 
applying  carefully  with  camel-hair  brushes  or  pencils. 

The  process  of  polishing  a  varnished  surface  described 
in  this  paragraph  is  the  one  adopted  at  a  large  piano 
factory.  A  wood  grain  filler  is  first  used,  after  which 
five  or  six  coats  of  varnish  are  applied,  each  coat  being 
l)erfectly  dry  before  it  is  followed  by  the  next  coat. 
When  the  last  coat  is  dry  the  surface  is  ground  perfectly 
level  with  pumice-stone  powder,  after  which  the  finish¬ 
ing  or  flowing  coat  of  varnish  is  laid  on.  When  this 
coat  is  thoroughly  hard  and  dry,  it  is  rubbed  down  with 
the  finest  pumice-powder  until  every  pimple  or  brush 
mark  disappears,  and  then  rubbed  with  rottenstone  so  as 
to  remove  the  fine  scratches  that  were  left  by  the  pumice  ; 
this  rubbing  is  continued  until  the  surface  is  perfectly 
smooth,  but  without  a  gloss.  The  rottenstone  that  is 
used  is  a  particularly  smooth  variety  and  is  mixed  with 
water  ;  the  stone  is  white,  and  is  not  the  dirty  earth- 
colour  variety  that  is  used  for  polishing  brasswork.  The 
gloss  is  then  brought  up  by  the  polisher  applying  rotten¬ 
stone  to  the  palm  of  his  hand  and  rubbing  briskly  until 


GLAZING  IN  FEENCH  POLISHING. 


71 


a  beautiful  polished  surface  is  produced.  This  is  then 
oiled  off  or  vapoured  up,  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the 
dust  of  the  rottenstone.  A  preparation  sometimes  used 
for  oiling  off  is  1  part  of  sweet  oil  and  2  parts  of  turpen¬ 
tine. 

In  polishing  an  oil  varnish  surface  with  rottenstone, 
etc.,  the  greatest  cleanliness  is  required  in  order  to  obtain 
a  surface  that  is  free  from  scratches.  The  kind  of  var¬ 
nish  that  is  used  for  finishing,  and  that  will  give  the  best 
results  by  remaining  bright  and  be  tough  enough  to 
withstand  the  necessary  grinding  down,  must  be  deter¬ 
mined  by  experiment.  Some  brands  of  varnish  will  be 
hard  enough  in  a  week,  and  others  may  require  ten 
days  ;  at  all  events,  the  harder  the  varnish  the  brighter 
and  the  more  enduring  will  be  the  polish.  At  least  four 
separate  applications  of  varnish  will  be  required  in 
order  to  obtain  a  good  body,  and  when  the  varnish  is 
hard,  proceed  to  polish  in  the  manner  described  below. 
Grind  down  the  surface  with  pads  of  felt  (secured  to 
wooden  blocks)  and  fine  pumice-stone  powder  and  water, 
rubbing  until  the  surface  is  perfectly  smooth  and  using 
water  freely  in  order  to  keep  the  varnish  cool.  Wipe 
the  surface  perfectly  clean,  then  allow  the  work  to  stand 
for  at  least  twenty-four  hours  in  order  that  the  surface 
may  harden  again.  Kottenstone  (either  in  oil  or  water) 
must  be  used  for  bringing  up  the  polish,  using  another 
felt  rubber,  and  working  with  a  circular  motion  ;  then, 
replacing  the  felt  with  a  piece  of  wadding  enclosed  in  a 
piece  of  an  old  silk  handkerchief,  still  proceed  with  the 
rottenstone  until  a  fine  equable  surface  has  been  pro¬ 
duced,  the  polish  of  which  appears  to  be  rather  dull.  If 
oil  rottenstone  has  been  used,  clean  the  surface  with 
flour ;  if  water  has  been  used  instead  of  oil,  clean  with 
a  sponge  and  chamois.  When  the  surface  is  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  dust  and  the  chamois  has  been 
washed  out  well,  the  worker,  after  washing  his  hands, 
must  hold  the  leather  in  the  left  hand,  and  frequently 
passing  his  right  hand  over  the  damp  chamois,  press  the 
ball  of  bis  right  hand  gently  on  the  work  and  draw  his 


72 


WOOD  FINISFIING. 


hand  sharply  towards  him  ;  each  movement  of  the  hand 
will  cause  a  shrill  sound,  and  should  produce  a  fine 
polish.  Some  ]iractice  will  be  required,  however,  in 
order  to  gain  a  bright,  even  polish  ;  hard  hands,  unless 
softened  by  frequent  washing,  are  apt  to  scratch  the 
work  slightly.  The  treatment  described  above  is  for 
high-grade  finish,  which  is  often  called  enamelling.  A 
cheaper  finish,  which  does  not  require  so  heavy  a  body  of 
varnish,  nor  such  tedious  waiting  for  the  varnish  to 
harden,  is  also  practicable.  When  the  varnish  surface 
is  hard  and  ready  for  polishing,  put  a  quantity  of  powder 
tripoli  into  a  basin  or  dish  with  clean  soft  water,  then 
with  a  pad  of  four  thicknesses  of  fine  flannel  secured 
round  a  pad  of  cork,  proceed  to  polish  the  varnish,  fre¬ 
quently  dipping  the  pad  into  the  tripoli  mixture,  and 
keeping  up  the  rubbing  until  a  fair  and  even  gloss  has 
l)een  secured,  which  can  be  ascertained  by  wiping  a 
small  portion  occasionally  with  a  wet  sponge.  Swill  off 
(piite  clean,  wipe  with  chamois,  and  finally  bring 
up  the  lustre  with  a  piece  of  mutton  suet  and  i)lain 
wheat  flour.  Should,  however,  the  varnish  surface  be 
uneven,  it  might  be  ground  level  first  with  pumice- 
powder  and  felt,  and  a  higher  degree  of  finish  may  be 
obtained  by  using  rottenstone  or  putty-powder. 

For  a  table  top  inlaid  with  canary,  sycamore,  and 
walnut,  white  polish  made  of  bleached  shellac  should  be 
used.  The  table  top  should  be  wiped  over  wuth  raw 
linseed  oil  and  the  polish  laid  on  with  a  rubber.  Many 
applications  of  the  iiolish  will  be  required  to  produce  a 
level  lustrous  surface,  as  no  grain  filler  will  be  used,  and 
the  woods  employed  for  the  inlaying  vary  in  the  texture 
or  openness  of  their  grain.  A  little  pumice-powder 
sprinkled  on  the  work  as  the  polishing  proceeds  will 
greatly  assist  in  driving  the  polish  into  the  grain,  and 
will  .also  help  in  grinding  the  polish  level. 

Jaxa  polish  extract  was  generally  looked  upon  as  a 
German  preparation,  but  this  is  not  so.  It  is  a  highly 
concentrated  form  of  transparent  polish,  which  it  is 
claimed  gives  a  result  similar  to  that  seen  on  goods  of 


GLAZING  IN  FRENCH  POLISHING. 


73 


German  manufacture.  The  following  directions  for 
the  use  of  Jaxa  polish  extract  are  issued  by  the 
manufacturers.  “Smooth  the  wood  with  glasspaper 
and  rub  in  a  little  oil.  Glasspaper  again,  using  cork. 
Put  on  extract  very  sparingly  with  the  pad.  Allow 
to  dry  for  about  ten  minutes,  glasspaper  again,  and 
sprinkle  on  some  pulverised  pumice-stone.  Dilute 
the  extract,  1  part  of  extract  to  4  parts  of  methylated 
spirit,  G4  overproof ;  damp  the  pad  with  the  same, 
and  cover  with  soft  linen,  polishing  till  the  pores  are 
closed.  Shake  on  a  few  drops  of  oil  to  allow  the 
rubber  to  run  smoothly,  then  use  the  diluted  extract 
as  before  with  the  pumice-powder  till  the  pores  are 
quite  closed.  Allow  to  dry  for  twenty-four  hours,  then 
finish  otf  with  8  to  12  parts  of  spirit  to  1  of  extract. 
'Jhe  Jaxa  polish  must  be  worked  very  dry,  otherwise 
the  hard  and  glossy  surface  will  not  be  obtained.” 
Prom  the  foregoing  it  will  be  noted  that  there  are  several 
points  in  which  the  method  of  using  the  polish  differs 
from  that  usually  adopted  by  present-day  French 
polishers.  No  grain  filler  is  used,  thus  ensuring  the 
work  standing  out  perfectly  clear.  The  spirit  advised  is 
of  better  quality  than  that  generally  used,  and  the  polish 
is  used  throughout,  nothing  being  said  about  clearing 
out  with  spirit  only. 

Much  cheap  furniture  is  polished  mahogany  colour. 
Most  polishers  give  one  or  two  coats  of  glue  or  patent 
size,  heavily  tinted  by  adding  Venetian  red.  Apply  hot 
with  a  brush  and  rub  in  lightly  with  a  piece  of  rag  ;  in 
the  case  of  mouldings  and  turned  work  get  it  well  in  the 
quirks  and  finish  off  in  the  direction  of  the  grain.  When 
dry,  smooth  with  worn  glass-paper,  then  give  two  or  three 
wet  rubbers  of  polish  without  a  rag  covering  ;  this  should 
prevent  the  grain  rising.  Now  apply  at  least  two  coats 
of  spirit  varnish  ;  an  interval  of  half  an  hour  should 
elapse  between  the  application  of  the  first  and  second 
coats.  When  the  last  coat  has  stood  about  an  hour,  level 
it  with  a  polish  rubber,  this  time  wuth  a  rag  covering  ; 
make  the  rubber  fairly  wet  with  half  polish  and  half 


74 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


spirits,  and  keep  the  face  free  from  creases.  Put  a  few 
spots  of  oil  on  tlie  face  of  tlie  rag  and  apply  to  the 
varnished  surface  with  a  light  swinging  motion,  circular 
then  straight ;  repeat  until  the  varnish  is  fairly  level  and 
the  grain  appears  filled  up,  then  apply  another  coat  of 
varnish  and  set  aside  till  next  day.  On  again  taking  up 
the  work,  smooth  down  with  glass-paper,  if  necessary, 
then  apply  more  polish  till  the  surface  appears  to  bo 
.sufficiently  solid.  The  brilliancy  of  the  surface  may  be 
considerably  enhanced  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  glaze  to 
the  rubber,  applying  the  latter  with  a  light,  straight 
motion,  taking  care  not  to  tear  up  the  lac  surface  instead 
of  levelling  it.  The  polish  and  varnish  used  should  be 
tinted  mahogany  colour  by  adding  to  each  a  small 
quantity  of  red  stain.  This  is  made  by  dissolving  one 
jiennyworth  of  bismarck  brown  in  J  pt.  of  methylated 
spirit. 

In  a  German  method  of  finishing  French  polish, 
having  worked  up  the  surface  of  the  polish  until  it  is 
almost  in  a  finished  state  (with  only  a  slight  trace  of  oil 
a])parent),  a  few  drops  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  are  applied 
to  the  work  and  well  rubbed  with  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
This  rubbing  is  continued  until  the  whole  surface  is 
covered  with  a  thin  film  of  acid,  and  has  a  uniform 
smeary  appearance.  Now  take  a  pounce  made  by 
placing  about  j  lb.  of  vienna  chalk  in  a  piece  of  close- 
grained  rag  (tying  up  the  corners  as  in  making  a  pumice 
pounce),  and  dust  the  palm  of  the  hand  with  chalk  by 
shaking  the  pounce  on  it  and  apply  it  to  the  rvork,  well 
rubbing  a  small  portion  at  a  time.  The  film  of  acid  will 
now  begin  to  disappear.  Continue  to  apply  the  pounce 
to  the  palnr  of  the  hand,  also  rub  it  on  the  rag  of  which 
the  pounce  is  made,  and  in  a  short  time  the  w-hole  sur¬ 
face  of  the  'work  will  become  dry  and  bright,  every  trace 
of  oil  being  removed.  The  acid  used  is  about  1  part 
acid  to  10  or  12  parts  w'ater,  and,  failing  vienna  chalk, 
precipitated  chalk  may  be  used  wuth  equal  results. 

Ill  the  American  system  of  polishing  furniture  patent 
grain-fillers  are  largely  used,  and  the  surface  is  built  up 


GLAZING  IN  FRENCH  POLISHING. 


75 


by  repeated  applications  of  varnish  instead  of  applying  lac 
solutions  with  a  pad.  The  glarish  look  of  the  varnish  is 
removed  by  rubbing  down  w'itli  pumice-stone  powder. 
On  high-class  goods  the  brightness  is  then  restored  by 
friction  ;  on  cheap-grade  goods  a  flowing  coat  of  superior 
quality  varnish  is  applied  as  a  finish.  The  varnish  em¬ 
ployed  is,  as  a  rule,  much  thicker  than  spirit  varnish  as 
used  in  English  cabinet  shops,  and  is  mostly  of  a  soft 
variety,  easily  scratched  and  showing  up  white  marks. 
To  get  a  fair  margin  of  profit,  articles  finished  by  the 
above  method  must  be  done  in  large  quantities. 

Fretwork  that  is  made  up  is  difficult  to  handle  with 
any  degree  of  satisfaction  owing  to  the  risk  of  breakage 
and  the  diflficulty  of  obtaining  a  gloss  on  all  portions, 
especially  work  with  overlay  fixed  on.  If,  however,  the 
work  can  be  taken  to  pieces,  the  operation  of  polishing 
is  much  simplified,  and  will  also  permit  any  preparation 
to  be  applied  to  both  sides  of  the  frets.  A  point  that 
must  not  be  forgotten  in  polishing  fretwork  is  that, 
unless  the  frets  are  cut  from  three-ply  woods,  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  liquid  to  one  side  only  may  cause  the  work 
when  drying  to  twist  out  of  shape.  Many  people  prefer 
to  see  fretwork  left  bare  because  a  varnish  finish  gener¬ 
ally  gives  a  glaring,  vulgar  appearance.  Wax  prepar¬ 
ations  are  not  recommended,  because  the  wax  and 
adherent  dust  soon  clog  the  interstices  of  the  frets. 
Transparent  French  polish  or  clear  spirit  varnish  may  be 
applied  with  a  camel-hair  brush,  but  should  be  afterwards 
dulled  down  by  brushing  the  surface  over  (when  the 
varnish  is  perfectly  hard)  with  fine-grade  pumice-stone 
powder,  which  removes  the  garish  appearance  that  is  so 
often  objected  to.  Apply  the  powder  with  a  fairly  stiff 
brush  ;  a  clean  sash  tool,  such  as  is  used  by  painters 
would  be  very  suitable  to  employ. 

Folishing  Ebony  Fretwork. — The  polishing  should 
be  wholly  or  three-parts  done  before  the  cutting  is 
begun.  After  sawing  the  wood,  fix  it  to  a  firm,  flat 
bench  and  plane  the  surface  smooth  ;  then  proceed  with 
the  cutting,  drilling  the  entering  holes  for  the  saw  from 


76 


WOOD  FJNISHING. 


the  face.  Ordinary  work  may  be  finished  by  using 
various  grades  of  emery  cloth  down  to  a  fineness  of  00, 
the  final  ]iolisli  being  given  by  briskly  rubbing  with  a 
hard  Irrush  on  which  has  been  placed  a  little  beeswax. 
Or  the  following  process  might  be  tried  : — Wrap  the 
emery  cloth  tightly  round  a  piece  of  cork  4  in.  by  2  in. 
by  1  in.,  and  rulr  up  and  down  rvith  the  grain  of  the 
wood.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  so  as  not  to  break 
off  any  portion  of  the  more  delicate  fretwork,  and  change 
the  grade  of  the  emery  cloth  as  the  surface  gradually 
becomes  smoother.  Should  it  be  preferred  the  surface 
may  be  liglitly  French  polished,  using  silk  for  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  rubber  in  place  of  ordinary  cotton ;  silk  will 
last  longer  over  the  sharp  surface  of  the  fretwork. 

Polish  can  be  removed  from  the  hands  by  using 
coarse  rag  or  wadding  saturated  with  spirits  ;  if  there 
is  at  handsome  pumice-powder  into  which  the  hands  can 
be  dipped  at  the  same  time,  so  much  the  better.  Finish 
by  washing  the  hands  with  soft  soap  and  cold  vvater,  if 
hot  soda  water  is  objectionable.  If  soda  is  used  the 
soreness  will  be  lessened  very  much  by  afterwards 
rubbing  the  hands  with  vinegar.  The  constant 
handling  of  polish  with  spirits  will  somewhat  harden 
the  skin. 


77 


CHAPTEK  VIII. 

WAX  POLISHING. 

'ALTnoTJGH  the  beauty  of  most  furniture  woods  is 
enhanced  to  the  highest  degree  by  French  polishing 
when  well  done,  there  are  other  processes  which,  though 
not  capable  of  being  brought  to  such  perfection,  are 
much  simpler.  Among  these  is  wax  polishing.  This 
mode  of  finishing  is  remarkably  easy,  both  as  regards 
materials  and  manipulation,  and  the  unskilled  novice 
can  manage  to  wax  polish  almost  as  well  as  an  expert. 
It  is,  therefore,  a  suitable  process  for  the  beginner. 

Though  any  wood  may  be  treated  by  waxing,  it  is 
generally  confined  to  oak,  especially  after  this  has  been 
darkened  by  fumigation  with  ammonia — which  process 
is  explained  on  p.  28.  The  appearance  of  oak  so 
finished  is  comparatively  dull,  but  it  has  an  attractive¬ 
ness  which  French  polish  does  not  possess  for  all 
eyes. 

For  antique  oak  furniture — whether  genuine  or  imi¬ 
tation — wax  is  the  best  finish,  though  varnish  is  often 
used.  Wax  polish,  though  it  may  not  give  the  same 
amount  of  gloss,  is  clearer  and  finer.  Varnish  clogs  the 
wood,  and  is  apt  to  give  a  treacly  look  to  any  piece  of 
furniture  finished  with  it. 

Mahogany  may  very  appropriately  be  finished  by 
wax  polish,  and  for  many  purposes  it  may  be  superior 
to  the  dulled  French  polish  so  often  seen.  The  top  of  a 
dining-table  is  apt  to  be  rendered  unsightly  from  hot 
plates  or  dishes  injuring  the  polished  surfaces.  The  heat 
burns  or  blisters  the  hardened  shellac  of  the  French 
polish,  and  a  finish  which  is  not  so  liable  to  disfigurement 
is  preferable ;  this  is  found  in  wax  polish.  Usually, 
dining-table  tops  (unless  French  polished)  are  simply  oil 


78 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


polished.  Waxing  is,  however,  less  tedious,  and  at  least 
as  suitable  for  the  purpose,  and  the  readiness  with  which 
an  accidental  marking  can  be  obliterated  renders  it 
particularly  useful. 

Wood  stained  black,  to  produce  so-called  ebony,  may 
be  wax  polished.  The  result  is  certainly  a  closer 
approximation  to  the  appearance  of  real  ebony  than 
when  the  work  is  French  polished  in  the  usual  way. 
Fretwork  articles  polished  with  wax  may  easily  be  made 
to  look  better  than  they  do  when  unskilfully  French 
polished.  The  wax  must  not  be  used  in  excess. 

Though  it  has  been  said  that  any  wood  may  be  wax 
polished,  there  can  be  no  question  that  this  process 
answers  best  on  the  more  coarsely-grained  woods,  such 
as  oak  and  ash  ;  for  pine  and  other  light  woods  of  close 
texture  it  is  not  so  well  suited,  unless  they  have  been 
previously  stained. 

The  ingredients  for  wax  polish  are,  in  the  simplest 
mixture,  beeswax  and  turpentine.  Resin  and  Venice 
turpentine  are  occasionally  added.  Resin  is  added 
with  the  intention  of  hardening  the  surface ;  but 
provided  the  wax  be  of  good  quality,  these  additions 
are  quite  unnecessary,  if  not  injurious,  and  a  good 
result  should  be  got  from  wax  and  turps. 

Wax  and  turpentine  alone  are  all  the  materials 
necessary  to  make  a  good  wax  polish,  and  when  any¬ 
thing  else  enters  into  the  composition  the  mixture  is  one 
of  a  fancy  character.  It  is  not  proposed  to  discuss  the 
qualities  of  beeswax  offered  for  sale,  and  the  polisher 
must  decide  what  kind  he  gets.  Some  advocate  the  use 
of  fine  white  wax,  and  possibly  a  better  finish  may 
sometimes  be  got  with  it  than  with  the  ordinary  yellow 
wax,  which,  however,  is  the  kind  generally  used ; 
the  only  occasions  when  it  might  not  be  so  good  as  the 
white  are  when  extreme  purity  of  tone  is  required 
for  a  light  wood.  Wood  perfectly  white  is,  however, 
seldom  wax  polished. 

The  way  in  which  wax  polish  is  prepared  depends 
a  good  deal  on  the  proportions  of  the  materials.  For  a 


WAX  POLISHING. 


79 


liquid  polish,  shred  the  wax  finely,  and  pour  the  turpen¬ 
tine  over  it,  leaving  the  two  till  they  are  incorporated. 
Cold  turpentine  will  dissolve  wax  slowly,  but  a  more 
expeditious  method  is  to  melt  the  wax  by  heat,  and 
before  it  has  time  to  solidify  pour  the  turpentine  into  it. 
Caution  is  necessary  when  melting  wax,  and  on  no 
account  should  the  turpentine  be  poured  into  the  wax 
while  it  is  still  on  the  fire.  With  ordinary  care  there  is 
no  danger,  and  the  possibility  of  a  mishap  is  suggested 
merely  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  might  otherwise 
overlook  the  inflammable  character  of  turpentine  vapour. 
Should  the  mixture  be  either  too  thick  or  too  thin,  there 
will  be  no  trouble  in  altering  its  consistency  afterwards. 

To  thin  a  mass  which  is  too  stiff,  a  very  moderate 
warming,  by  placing  the  bottle  in  hot  water,  will  reduce 
it  to  a  more  liquid  form,  as  the  turpentine  already  in  it 
facilitates  the  change,  and  more  turpentine  is  added. 
To  stiffen  the  mixture,  wax  should  be  melted  separately, 
and  the  original  mixture  added  to  it.  The  heat  of  the 
freshly-melted  wax  will  probably  be  sufficient  to  cause 
all  the  materials  to  mix.  In  any  case,  the  wax  should 
be  thoroughly  melted  before  the  turpentine  is  added,  as 
a  lumpy  mixture  is  neither  pleasant  to  work  with  nor 
conducive  to  good  finish.  The  natural  tendency  of  a 
wax  polishing  mixture,  exposed  to  the  air,  is  to  stiffen, 
on  account  of  the  evaporation  of  the  turpentine.  A 
considerable  time  must  elapse  before  there  is  an  appre¬ 
ciable  alteration,  and  the  fact  that  a  change  does  go  on, 
slowly,  is  mentioned  to  remind  polishers  that  if  they 
have  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  mixture  standing 
over,  they  must  not  expect  it  to  retain  its  original  con¬ 
sistency  unless  kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle. 

A  hint  for  those  who  think  that  the  more  ingre¬ 
dients  a  mixture  contains  the  better  it  must  be,  and  who 
are  not  satisfied  unless  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  resin 
in  their  wax  polishing  paste  :  always  melt  the  resin  first, 
and  add  the  wax  gradually,  and  constantly  stir.  Whether 
resin  be  used  or  not,  the  mixture  should  be  allowed  to 
get  quite  cold  before  it  is  applied  to  the  work. 


80 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Although  the  consistency  of  wax  polish  varies  con¬ 
siderably,  the  comparative  merits  of  different  degrees 
of  stiffness  or  fluidity  must  be  considered,  so  that  an 
intelligent  conception  of  the  polisher’s  aim  may  be 
arrived  at.  Suppose  a  piece  of  beeswax,  without  any  ad¬ 
mixture  of  turpentine,  is  rubbed  on  a  piece  of  smooth,  flat 
wood.  Some  of  the  wax  adheres  to  the  surface,  which 
when  friction  is  applied,  becomes  glossy  or  polished. 
The  labour,  however,  is  considerable,  and  though  dry 
wax  may  do  on  a  flat  surface,  when  mouldings  or 
carvings  are  to  be  treated,  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of 
satisfactory  application  are  considerable.  The  remedy 
is  to  soften  the  wax  so  that  it  may  be  got  into  all  parts 
of  the  work.  Melted  wax  might  do,  but  in  putting  it 
on  to  the  wood  it  becomes  cold,  and  consequently 
reverts  to  its  original  stiffness.  We  have  then  to  get 
the  w'ax  to  a  fair  working  consistency  by  means  of  some 
suitable  solvent,  which  turpentine  has  proved  to  be.  It 
is  cleanly,  inexpensive,  and  evaporates  sufficiently 
quickly,  besides  mixing  well  with  the  wax.  Some 
polishers  prefer  what  others  might  think  an  excess  of 
turpentine.  When  a  stiff  paste  is  used,  the  wax  is  apt 
to  be  deposited  in  excessive  quantity,  necessitating  a 
considerable  amount  of  rubbing,  in  places  to  remove  it 
A  fluid  polish  spreads  the  wax  much  more  evenly,  but 
no  gloss  can  be  obtained  till  the  turpentine  has  dis¬ 
appeared,  either  evaporated  or  been  absorbed  by  the  wood 
IVhen  the  polish  has  been  laid  evenly  over  the  work,, 
this  does  not  take  long,  so  a  thin  mixture  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  preferable  to  a  very  stiff  one.  A  paste  of  about 
the  consistency  of  butter  in  hot  weather,  might  be 
regarded  as  a  medium.  Those  who  use  a  wax  polish 
which  could  be  poured  would  consider  this  stiff,  while 
others  who  add  very  little  turpentine,  or  who  believe 
in  resin,  would  consider  it  thin.  A  thick  mixture 
or  a  thin  one  may  be  used,  the  result  depending 
more  on  the  manipulation  of  the  material  than  on 
the  material  itself ;  and  this  manipulation  may  next 
be  considered. 


WAX  POLISHING. 


81 


In  the  application  of  wax  polish  there  is  almost  as 
great  a  variety  in  practice  as  in  proportion  of  ingredients. 
The  great  thing  is  to  have  the  wax — the  turpentine  is 
merely  the  vehicle  for  conveying  this — evenly  and  thinly 
distributed,  and  so  long  as  this  is  done  it  is  of  small 
consequence  how  it  is  managed.  To  spread  the  wax 
with,  some  use  a  piece  of  rag,  while  others  prefer  a 
stiff  brush  specially  made  for  the  purpose,  and  both  get 
equally  good  results.  After  the  wax  has  been  spread  the 
polish  is  obtained  by  friction,  and  the  more  you  rub 
the  brighter  the  polish  will  be.  The  brush  or  cloth  used 
to  rub  the  wax  into  the  wood  should  not  be  employed 
to  give  the  finishing  touches.  In  this  final  friction 
it  is  essential  that  the  cloth  or  brush  used  be  perfectly 
dry,  as  if  it  is  at  all  damp  no  polished  surface  can 
be  produced.  The  final  polish  is  best  done  with  a 
perfectly  clean  rubber,  and  three  sets  of  cloths  or  rubbers 
may  be  used.  With  the  first  the  mixture  is  to  be 
rubbed  on  the  wood,  with  the  second  it  is  to  be  rubbed 
off  till  a  fair  amount  of  polish  is  got,  while  with  the 
third  the  rubbing  should  be  continued  till  the  surface  is 
as  bright  as  it  can  be  got. 

The  directions  which  have  been  given  should  enable 
any  one  to  wax-polish  wood  successfully.  Hard  dry 
rubbing,  with  energetic  application  is  at  least  as 
important  as  the  wax  and  turpentine ;  for  though 
more  simple  than  the  French  polishing  process,  it  is 
more  laborious. 

Beeswax  for  use  in  polishing  furniture  should  be  of 
good  quality,  not  a  cheap  imitation  preparation.  The 
genuine  wax  should  be  steeped  in  turpentine  and  brought 
up  to  blood  heat,  when,  after  the  mixture  is  stirred,  it 
becomes  a  thin  mass  of  about  the  consistency  of  oint¬ 
ment.  It  can  then  be  applied  to  furniture  by  means  of 
a  brush,  and  if  rubbed  vigorously  with  a  swab  of  flannel 
or  a  hard  clean  brush,  the  surface  soon  assumes  a  gloss, 
which  improves  with  each  successive  application.  The 
surface  to  be  polished  should  be  of  new  wood  or  free 
from  furniture  paste  or  accumulated  dirt.  The  wax  is 

p 


82 


WOOD  FINISIIIInG. 


not  a  cleanser,  but  if  used  as  advised  is  useful  for  reno* 
vating  furniture.  New  woods,  especially  of  coarse,  open 
grain,  such  as  oak,  take  many  applications  to  gain  a 
pleasing  result.  Practical  pjolishers  generally  French 
polish  the  wood  before  applying  the  wax.  The  polish 
is  applied  till  the  grain  appears  full;  this  is  allowed 
time  to  harden,  the  surface  is  then  dulled  down  by 
means  of  pumice-powder,  and  then  waxed,  the  process 
giving  to  the  goods  what  is  commonly  called  antique  or 
egg-shell  finish. 

In  wax-polishing  a  floor,  the  labour  of  the  work  is 
much  lessened  by  using  the  special  brush  obtainable  for 
the  purpose.  The  handle  of  the  brush  being  6  ft.  in  length 
enables  a  portion  of  door  16  ft.  by  5  ft.  to  be  undertaken 
at  each  operation.  The  larger  size  of  brush  weighs  about 
18  lb.,  is  12  in,  long  by  in.  wide,  and  costs  16s.  6d.  ; 
the  smaller  size  weighs  about  14  lb.,  is  lOi  in.  long  by 

in.  wide,  and  costs  153.  Both  brushes  are  fitted  with 
swivel  handles.  No  grain-filler  is  really  necessary  on 
floors,  but  gaping  joints  in  old  floors  should  be  closed  up 
or  the  interstices  filled  in  with  strips  of  wood  planed 
wedge  shape,  good  hot  glue  being  brushed  along  the  sides 
before  driving  the  wedges  home.  The  surplus  wood,  and 
any  other  inequalities,  should  next  day  be  levelled  by 
planing  ;  all  nail-holes  and  small  cracks  should  also  be 
filled  up  with  putty,  coloured  by  the  addition  of  yellow 
ochre  for  oak  finish  or  brown  umber  for  walnut  finish.  A 
special  preparation  known  as  hospital  Bonuk  is  useful 
for  large  floors,  or  the  old-fashioned  beeswax  and  turpen¬ 
tine  may  be  used  ;  either  preparation  should  be  applied 
to  the  floor  by  means  of  flannel.  A  space  5  yd.  by  2  yd. 
may  be  taken  in  hand  at  a  time.  Well  rub  in  with  the 
weighted  brush,  standing  in  position  about  central,  thus 
allowing  the  brush  to  traverse  the  whole  length  at  one 
sweep,  moving  outwards  till  the  whole  width  is  brushed 
fairly  dry.  To  obtain  a  bright  and  lasting  polish,  place 
a  piece  of  old  blanket  or  flannel  under  the  brush  and 
briskly  rub  to  and  fro  for  a  few  minutes  ;  the  flannel 
need  not  be  secured  to  the  brush,  the  weight  alone  will 


WAX  POLISHING. 


83 


keep  it  in  position.  A  new  floor  or  one  that  has  not  pre¬ 
viously  been  polished  will  need  several  operations  to 
ensure  an  even  polish.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  secure  a  strip 
of  thick  felt,  baize,  or  cloth  round  the  outer  edge  of  the 
brush  to  prevent  damage  to  the  paint  or  varnish  on 
skirting  boards,  etc. 


84 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OIL  POLISHING  AND  DKY  SHINING. 

The  simple  process  of  oil  polishing  must  now  receive 
attention ;  and  there  is  still  something  to  admire  in  a 
comparatively  dull  oiled  surface.  The  process  simply 
consists  of  rubbing  in  linseed  oil  and  polishmg  with  a 
soft  rag.  The  oiling  and  polishing  must  be  continued  at 
intervals  till  the  requisite  shine  is  obtained.  To  get  the 
best  results  takes  time  and  friction.  Oil  polishing  is 
not  difficult,  but  it  is  decidedly  fatiguing  and  tedious. 
The  more  the  surface  is  rubbed  the  better,  and  the 
process  may  be  extended  over  some  weeks.  Patience 
and  energetic  application  are  still  more  essential  than 
with  wax  polishing,  for  to  get  even  the  semblance  of  a 
polish  or  gloss  within  a  week  or  two  with  the  aid  of  oil 
must  not  be  expected.  How  long  does  it  take  to  finish  a 
thing  properly  with  oil?  It  may  be  said  the  work  is 
never  finished.  An  oiled  surface  will  always  bear  more 
rubbing  than  it  has  had,  and  will  not  be  deteriorated  by 
friction  ;  still  from  one  to  two  months  should  suffice  to 
get  a  good  polish  which  will  be  durable  according  to  the 
amount  of  labour  bestowed  upon  it  during  that  time. 
This  is  more  time  than  can  be  devoted  to  the  finishing 
touches  of  a  piece  of  furniture  generally  nowadays,  so  it 
may  almost  be  considered  that  oil  polishing  is  an  obsolete 
process. 

Still,  it  does  not  follow  that  because  the  process  is 
too  long  to  be  remunerative  in  ordinary  work  it  should 
not  be  worthy  of  attention,  especially  as  it  has  merits 
which  recommend  it  where  speed  is  not  a  primary 
consideration.  One  great  advantage  of  it  is  that  it  is 
much  more  durable  than  either  French  or  wax  polishes  ; 
it  does  not  blister  by  heat  like  the  former,  nor  spoil  with 
water  to  such  an  extent  as  the  latter,  with  which  in  general 


OIL  POLISHING  AND  DRY  SHINING. 


85 


appearance  it  may  be  compared.  It  is  because  it  does 
not  blister  by  beat  that  it  is  especially  useful.  An 
ordinary  French  polished  dining-table  top  shows  the 
damage  caused  by  hot  dishes  laid  on  it,  unless  great 
care  has  been  taken.  On  an  oil  polished  dining-table 
top  the  same  hot  dishes  might  be  placed  almost  with 
impunity ;  and  it  is  chiefly  dining-table  tops  that  have 
prevented  oil  polishing  becoming  quite  extinct.  Though 
the  whole  of  a  table,  or  anything  else,  may  be  polished 
with  oil,  it  is  usual,  even  when  the  top  is  oiled,  to  polish 
the  legs  and  frame  otherwise. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  only  material  used  in  pure  oil 
polishing,  but  other  ingredients  have  been  used,  till  it  is 
difficult  to  recognise  the  distinction  between  oil  polish¬ 
ing  and  French  polishing.  The  two  processes  may 
overlap  to  an  almost  indefinite  extent,  but  with  these  we 
have,  at  present  at  any  rate,  nothing  to  do,  and  to 
discuss  them  might  only  tend  to  confuse  the  novice. 
Authorities  differ  on  the  state  in  which  the  linseed  oil 
should  be  used,  some  recommending  boiled,  others  raw, 
and  others  various  proportions  of  the  two.  For  ordinary 
work  boiled  linseed  oil  is  perhaps  the  better,  but  this  is 
not  intended  to  imply  that  those  who  prefer  raw  oil  are 
wrong  ;  therefore  any  oil  polisher  who  has  an  inclination 
for  some  fancy  mixture  of  boiled  and  raw  oils  can  use  it. 

The  treatment  is  very  much  the  same  as  in  wax 
polishing.  It  consists  in  rubbing  the  oil  well  into  the 
wood,  not  saturating  or  flooding,  but  scrubbing  it,  and 
then  rubbing  long  and  hard.  The  process  may  be 
repeated  almost  indefinitely,  daily  or  at  longer  intervals, 
till  a  polish  which  is  deemed  sufficient  appears.  For 
example,  take  a  table  top,  rub  some  oil  well  into  it, 
and  then  polish  with  a  rubber  formed  by  wrapping  some 
baize,  felt,  or  similar  material  round  a  brick  or  other 
suitable  block,  the  purpose  of  which  is,  by  its  weight,  to 
some  extent  to  relieve  the  polisher  from  using  his 
muscles  in  applying  pressure.  The  rubbing  should 
be  continued  till  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  dry.  The 
only  perceptible  difference  in  the  top  will  be  the 


8S 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


darkened  appearance  caused  by  the  oil,  as  little  or  no 
gloss  will  appear  at  first.  By  repeating  the  operation, 
however,  a  polish  will  come  up  gradually,  and  a  surface 
which  in  the  opinion  of  many  is  superior  to  that  of 
French  polish  will  be  the  ultimate  result.  Should  the 
polish  sweat,  some  methylated  spirit  may  be  rubbed  in. 
This  will  dry  the  surface  without  spoiling  the  polish. 

Oil  polishing  is  hardly  suitable  for  anything  but 
plain  work,  on  account  of  the  labour  required  ;  but  any 
piece  of  work  can  be  so  polished  if  the  necessary  time 
and  labour  be  given  to  it.  Even  when  it  is  not  deemed 
practicable  to  bring  up  a  polish  with  oil,  a  very  pleasing 
finish  may  be  given  to  a  piece  of  work  by  merely 
rubbing  it  with  oil.  The  colour  is  enriched  to  an  extent 
which  perhaiM  would  hardly  be  credited  by  those  who 
have  not  had  frequent  opportunities  of  seeing  wood  in 
the  white  and  again  after  being  oiled.  In  choice 
mahogany  especially  the  improvement  is  very  marked. 
Light  oak  is  also  greatly  improved  in  tone.  Fret- 
workers  who  are  not  proficient  in  French  polishing 
would  be  more  satisfied  with  the  appearance  of 
anything  they  make  if  they  simply  oiled  it  instead  of 
coating  it  with  shellac,  which  has  to  serve  for  French 
polish. 

Dry-shining  will  be  found  a  simple  process  after  the 
ordinary  methods  of  F rench  polishing  have  been  mastered. 
Finishing  work  by  dry-shining  is  the  crudest  and 
simplest  way  in  which  a  gloss  can  be  got  on  the  surface 
of  wood  by  means  of  a  thin  varnish  of  shellac  and 
methylated  spirit.  It  must  not  be  mistaken  for  varnish¬ 
ing,  as  this  process  is  ordinarily  understood,  for  it  is 
distinctly  a  process  of  French  polishing.  Even  those 
who  have  managed  to  do  bodying-up  and  spiriting-off, 
or  even  glazing,  will  find  the  operation  of  dry-shining 
simple  in  comparison.  It  is  the  nearest  approach  to 
varnishing  by  means  of  a  rubber,  instead  of  a  brush,  that 
polishers  practise.  The  wood  is  varnished  with  ordinary 
French  polish,  applied  by  means  of  the  polisher’s  special 
appliance — the  rubber. 


OIL  POLISHING  AND  DEY  SHINING.  87 


Dry-fahining,  unlike  glazing,  is  not  in  any  degree  a 
substitute  for  the  difficult  process  of  spiriting-off,  and 
those  who  think  to  get  a  high  degree  of  finish  on  their 
work  by  means  of  dry-shining  may  give  up  the  illusion. 
When  a  really  good  finish  is  wanted,  French  polishing, 
as  it  is  ordinarily  understood,  should  be  chosen,  for 
there  is  no  efficient  substitute  by  which  a  like  result  can 
be  got. 

Dry-shining  can  be  used  in  any  position  where  a 
high  degree  of  finish  is  not  necessary  or  customary.  It 
is  useful  for  finishing  inside  work— such  as  the  insides 
of  boxes,  drawers,  cabinets,  and  interior  parts  generally 
— and  is  often  seen  on  the  fronts  of  drawers  and  trays 
enclosed  in  a  wardrobe.  The  chief  advantages  in  con¬ 
nection  with  it  are  that  it  can  be  done  expeditiously, 
and  therefore  cheaply  ;  that  it  sufficiently  closes  the 
grain  of  the  wood  to  prevent  dust  getting  in  and  clogging 
it ;  and  that  it  gives  a  certain  degree  of  finish  which 
wood,  left  in  the  white  or  altogether  unpolished,  does 
not  possess. 

The  wood  is  bodied-in  without  any  preparatory 
filling,  but  otherwise  precisely  in  the  manner  directed  in 
Chapter  VI.  It  is  not  customary  to  take  such  precautions 
to  get  up  a  good  body  as  there  recommended.  A  better 
description  of  the  process  is  to  say  that  the  wood  is 
wiped  over  with  the  polish  rubber ;  not  much  trouble 
is  usually  taken  to  do  more  than  get  the  preliminary 
body  worked  on.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  first  body 
should  not  be  allowed  to  sink,  and  the  article  then  be 
re-bodied  if  necessary.  Much  bodying-in  would  make 
the  work  almost  as  hard  as  that  involved  in  ordinary 
French  polishing,  so  that  ordinarily  the  bodying  in 
dry-shining  is  done  more  quickly. 

When  the  bodying-in  has  been  done  to  the  satis¬ 
faction  of  the  polisher,  the  rubber  is  charged  with 
French  polish,  rather  more  fully  than  was  recommended 
for  bodying.  Instead  of  being  rubbed  all  over  the  wood 
in  any  direction,  it  is  wiped  over  in  the  direction  of 
the  grain  from  end  to  end  of  the  piece,  very  much 


88 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


in  the  manner  mentioned  in  connection  with  glazing. 
The  rubber  may  be  moved  backwards  and  forwards 
till  dry,  but  a  better  way  under  ordinary  circumstances 
is  to  let  the  polish  deposited  by  each  rub  dry  before 
going  over  the  same  place  again.  When  using  the 
rubber  in  finishing,  it  should  have  no  oil;  and  if  the 
former  of  these  two  methods  is  adopted  it  will  be 
difficult  to  prevent  the  polish  dragging,  so  the  easier 
course  should  be  adopted. 


89 


CHAPTER  X. 

EEPOLISHING  AND  REVIVING. 

Having  once  mastered  the  fundamental  principle  of 
polishing,  as  explained  in  Chapter  V.,  it  is  a  compara¬ 
tively  easy  task  to  give  to  a  plain  piece  of  wood  a  level 
and  lustrous  surface  ;  and  by  the  use  of  stains  that  can 
be  bought  ready  prepared,  a  fair  imitation  of  any  given 
wood  can  be  obtained  with  but  little  labour.  But  the 
polisher  who  wishes  to  hold  his  own  against  all  comers, 
must  be  able  to  do  more  than  merely  to  stain  and  polish 
a  plain  piece  of  new  wood. 

When  dealing  with  old  work  that  requires  repolishing, 
all  dirt,  grease,  and  furniture  paste  must  be  removed,  by 
careful  washing  with  soda  and  warm  water  and 
powdered  pumice-stone  or  bath  brick.  It  can  then  be 
French  polished,  or  a  fresher  and  more  satisfactory 
appearance  may  be  given  by  applying  one  or  two  coats 
of  brown  hard  spirit  varnish — such  as  can  be  bought  at 
an  oil  and  colour  merchant’s — carefully  with  a  camel- 
hair  brush. 

When  varnished  work  has  to  be  dealt  with,  first 
clean  oflF  all  the  varnish  and  then  repolish  in  the  way 
described  in  previous  chapters,  except  that  filling  will 
probably  be  dispensed  with.  The  varnish  can  generally 
be  more  easily  removed  by  scraping  than  by  papering. 
With  care  the  varnish  can  be  washed  off  with  soda  or 
potash  and  water,  but  on  account  of  the  liability 
to  injure  the  wood  it  is  scarcely  advisable  to  -adopt 
this  method. 

For  removing  polish  from  flat  surfaces,  the  steel 
scrapers  as  used  by  cabinet-makers  are  the  best  tools . 
to  use.  In  turned  and  other  work  which  has  an  un¬ 
even  surface  the  old  coating  can  nearly  all  be  got  off^ 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


by  the  application  of  strong  hot  soda  water,  to  which 
may  be  added  some  oxalic  acid  in  difficult  cases.  When 
a  large  quantity  of  work  has  to  be  treated,  use  the 
following  mixture  ; — \  lb.  American  potash,  |  lb.  soft 
soap,  \  lb.  rock  ammonia,  I  lb.  washing  soda,  3  ounces 
of  nitric  acid,  1  gallon  of  water.  Apply  with  a  fibre  or 
scrubbing  brush,  taking  care  of  the  hands.  Swill  off  with 
clean  water,  then  with  vinegar  to  neutralise  any  acid. 
When  the  work  is  dry,  oil.and  fill  in  ;  tlien  repolish. 

Spirit  varnish  can  be  removed  by  washing  with 
methylated  spirit,  which  redissolves  the  lac.  This  is 
both  a  tedious  and  somewhat  expensive  method,  which 
need  be  resorted  to  only  for  delicate  mouldings  and 
other  work  which  cannot  well  be  cleaned  by  scraping 
or  by  scouring  with  some  liquid  which,  though  it  would 
remove  the  varnish,  might  stain  and  so  spoil  the  wood. 
Methylated  spirit  being  neutral  may  be  used  on  any 
wood,  as  it  will  not  affect  the  colour. 

When  dealing  with  cabinets  or,  other  built-up  work, 
the  process  of  repolishing  will  be  simplified  somewhat 
by  taking  apart  as  much  as  convenient.  It  is  a  good 
plan  to  unhinge  all  doors,  to  remove  all  carvings  that 
may  be  screwed  on  from  the  back,  and  to  remove  all 
knobs,  brass-fittings,  etc. — not  forgetting  to  put  some 
tallying  mark  on  each  piece  w'hich  might  be  liable  to 
misplacement.  Thus  the  doors  can  be  better  handled 
on  the  bench,  the  corners  of  panels  can  be  worked  up 
better,  and  the  carvings  can  be  varnished  better.  When 
the  carvings  are  planted  on,  as  is  often  done,  a  much 
cleaner  job  is  made  if  these  are  first  removed  ;  for  it  is 
a  diflicult  task  to  polish  the  open  carvings  equal  to  the 
flat  surface. 

Sometimes  polished  work  is  disfigured  by  fine  little 
lines  which  are  caused  by  cracks,  resulting  from 
sweating.  These  lines  become  visible  through  the  dust 
settling  on  the  exuding  oil.  This  disfigurement  can 
be  averted  almost  entirely  by  occasionally  carefully 
wiping  with  a  soft  damp  cloth.  Sweating  is  not  entirely 
preventible,  but  when  the  oil  has  ceased  to  exude. 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


91 


which  may  not  be  for  some  months,  the  work  may  bo 
repolished  with  advantage. 

The  perfectly  level,  brilliant  polish  found  on  new 
German  pianos  fills  many  an  English  French-polisher 
with  envy.  This  brilliant  polish  does  not  last  long  on 
cheap-grade  goods,  and  many  such  pianos  soon  have  a 
greasy,  cracked  appearance.  Indeed,  there  are  but  few 
of  these  pianos  with  a  polish  gained  by  the  legitimate 
process  of  French-polishing.  This  brilliant,  level  polish 
is  gained  by  a  very  liberal  use  of  gum  sandarach,  and 
when  the  polishing  is  completed  the  pianos  are  set 
aside  in  a  clean,  hot  room,  which  has  the  effect  of 
causing  the  polish  or  gums  to  flow  to  one  dead  leveh 
Some  makers  use  varnish  very  freely,  and,  before 
passing  to  the  hot  room,  level  this  by  means  of  pumice 
powder,  tripoli,  putty  powder,  and  sometimes  flour. 

When  the  requisite  number  of  coats  of  varnish  have 
been  laid,  the  surface  is  levelled  with  fine  glass-paper 
and  linseed-oil,  or  by  the  slower  process  of  felt  rubber 
and  pumice  powder.  After  being  wiped  perfectly  clean, 
a  rubber  made  of  soft  flannel,  or,  better  still,  of  old  silk, 
is  used  to  rub  carefully  and  lightly  in  a  circular  direction 
with  tripoli  powder  and  oil,  till  the  surface  is  perfectly 
level  and  inclined  to  be  bright ;  it  is  then  rubbed 
with  dry  putty  powder  and  silk,  and  finally  brightened 
with  flour. 

The  surface  should  be  left  perfectly  free  from  any 
trace  of  the  polishing  powders  ;  neglect  of  this  accounts 
for  the  white  patches  sometimes  seen  on  the  German 
pianos.  These  patches  are  not  so  deep  as  they  appear 
at  first  sight,  and  may  often  be  removed  with  flour 
emery  and  linseed  oil  or  turps  without  disturbing  the 
polish. 

To  renovate  the  polish  on  these  pianos  is  difficult, 
but  when  it  is  not  very  bad,  a  reviver  made  of  equal 
parts  of  rectified  oil  of  amber,  olive  oil,  and  turps  is 
generally  effective.  The  oil  of  amber  and  olive  oil  are  first 
thoroughly  mixed,  then  the  turps  is  added,  and  the  mixture 
applied  by  means  of  wadding.  The  surface  is  wiped  off 


92 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


with  a  rag,  and  finished  with  a  clean,  soft  rag-swab,  made 
fairly  moist  with  methylated  spirit.  Should  any  trace 
of  grease  still  remain,  change  to  a  clean  place  of  the 
already  moist  rag,  and  sprinkle  a  few  spots  of  glaze  on 
its  face,  or,  better  still,  wipe  the  face  of  the  glaze  rubber 
over  the  face  of  the  clean  swab. 

Should  this  method  prove  ineffective  it  will  be 
necessary  to  repolish,  first  removing  the  sweat  or  rough¬ 
ness  by  fine  glass-paper  and  oil,  or  by  washing  with 
weak  soda-water  and  pumice  powder.  The  polish  used 
should  be  made  with  spirit  instead  of  naphtha,  and,  to 
ensure  its  lasting  qualities,  it  should  be  bodied  up  one 
day  and  finished  the  next. 

To  darken  the  birch  frame  of  a  chair  from  which,  by 
reason  of  rough  usage,  the  original  polish  is  much  chipped, 
wipe  it  over  with  asphaltuin  dissolved  in  turpentine  (one 
I^ennyworth  in  ^  i)int  of  turps).  This  stains  with¬ 
out  giving  a  painted  appearance ;  should  there  be  any 
difficulty  in  obtaining  asphaltum,  vandyke  brown  may 
be  used,  mixed  to  a  thin  paste  with  liquid  ammonia — or 
with  a  strong  solution  of  common  washing-soda.  This 
is  thinned  with  water,  till  of  the  required  tone,  which 
will  readily  be  found  by  trying  its  effect  on  any  odd  piece 
of  wood.  If  French  polish  cannot  be  applied,  the  most 
suitable  thing  to  use  is  brown  hard  spirit  varnish. 

For  restoring  polish  that  has  faded  from  damp 
or  exposure  to  the  sun,  those  stains  which  are  used 
to  stain  the  common  woods  will  not  be  suitable. 
It  may  be  convenient  to  remove  only  the  upper  sur¬ 
face  of  the  polish,  to  colour  the  faded  portion  so  as  to 
match  its  surroundings,  and  to  repolish  the  whole. 
When  the  polish  is  not  very  bad,  it  is  generally 
sufficient  to  smooth  it  well  with  a  jiiece  of  worn  glass- 
paper.  Uefore  repolishing,  it  is  advisable  first  to  wash 
the  article  with  water  to  which  a  little  common  washing 
soda  has  been  added.  When  it  is  much  scratched  or  faded, 
methylated  spirit  should  be  sprinkled  upon  it,  and  the 
surface  well  rubbed  with  No.  1  glass-paper,  applied  with 
a  circular  motiou  ;  it  will  then  be  found  that  only  the 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


93 


tipper  surface  of  the  polish  will  be  removed.  This  will 
remove  any  dirt,  furniture  paste,  etc. ;  a  little  pumice- 
powder  or  powdered  bath  brick  may  be  used  to  assist. 

After  the  necessary  cleaning-off  of  dirt,  etc.,  has 
been  accomplished,  any  bruises  must  be  removed,  either 
by  scraping  out  or  by  bringing  up  level,  by  means  of  a 
hot  iron  and  moisture,  or  by  filling  up  with  hard 
stopping,  or  by  the  still  better  method  given  on  page  4G. 
When  this  has  been  done,  and  all  defective  parts  made 
good,  the  surface  must  be  wiped  over  with  an  oily  rag  ; 
it  assists  the  new  polish  to  take  kindly  to  the  old.  In 
scraping  out  the  bruises,  in  cleaning-off  level  any  new 
piece,  and  in  cleaning-off  the  polish,  it  is  probable  that 
light  patches  may  be  made.  More  especially  will  these 
be  made  apparent  if  the  damaged  portion  has  been 
previously  coloured  up  by  stains,  dry  colours,  or  dyed 
polish. 

For  colouring-up  or  matching,  it  is  generally 
sufficient,  if  the  wood  in  hand  is  mahogany,  to  wipe 
over  the  damaged  portion  with  red  oil,  which  consists  of 
J  lb.  of  alkanet  root  steeped  in  1  pint  of  linseed  oil, 
working  up  with  red  polish.  Should  the  wood  be 
walnut,  many  a  little  blemish  and  scratch  in  soft  resin¬ 
ous  varnish  may  be  matched  by  wiping  over  with  a 
solution  of  asphaltum  dissolved  in  turps  or  linseed  oil. 
Should  the  defect  be  a  piece  of  sap  or  other  light 
portion,  go  over  the  light  portion  several  times  with  the 
polish  rubber  to  prevent  the  grain  from  rising,  and  then 
saturate  a  small  tuft  of  wadding  with  3  parts  of 
methylated  spirits  to  1  part  of  polish ;  on  this  wadding 
place  a  small  quantity  of  Vandyke  brown  or  brown 
umber,  mix  well,  and  carefully  wipe  over  the  light 
portions,  thinning  out  with  spirits  if  too  dark,  picking 
up  a  little  more  colour  if  not  dark  enough,  adding  a 
‘little  black  if  required. 

Matching  stains  are  used  in  French  polishing  because 
light  and  dark  places  often  occur  in  the  best  selected 
woods,  and  in  stained  work,  owing  to  the  difference  in 
the  direction  of  the  grain.  To  tone  or  harmonise  the 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


'JI 

entire  surface  to  one  uniform  shade,  is  technically  called 
matching  or  colouring  up,  and  requires  a  little  tact  and 
a  good  eye  for  colour.  On  large  Hat  surfaces  coloured 
polish  may  be  used  with  advantage,  but  for  small  work 
it  would  be  better  to  take  a  small  tuft  of  wadding  and 
wet  it  with  1  part  polish  to  3  parts  spirits.  With  this 
take  up  a  little  yellow  ochre  and  just  a  trace  of  umber 
or  Vandyke  brown.  Press  the  wadding  well  on  the  back 
of  a  piece  of  worn-out  glass-paper  to  equalise,  and  mix 
well.  Try  the  effect  on  an  odd  corner  of  the  work ;  if 
too  dark  thin  out  with  spirits  ;  if  not  dark  enough  pick 
up  more  colour,  or  "wipe  over  twice.  Having  gained  the 
right  shade,  apply  lightly  with  a  straight  or  wavy 
motion  as  required.  This  would  enable  one  to  match 
the  oak,  but  any  wood  can  be  matched  by  using  suitable 
pigments,  a  red  tinge  being  usually  given  by  the  addition 
of  a  few  drops  of  Bismarck  brown  stain.  Though  it 
is  possible  to  proceed  to  polish  direct,  yet  it  would  be 
safer  to  set  the  stain  by  giving  a  coat  of  thin  spirit 
varnish,  and  allow  this  to  get  quite  dry  before  polishing. 
In  matching-up  satin  walnut,  the  polisher  must  use 
judgment,  for  the  work  can  hardly  be  regarded  as 
mechanical.  The  stain  must  depend  on  the  colour  or 
tint  of  the  lighter  parts,  and  of  the  darker  parts  to 
which  they  are  to  be  matched.  Generally  a  little 
weak  brown  stain  will  do  what  is  required.  When 
necessary,  it  can  be  altered  slightly  in  colour  by  the 
addition  of  other  pigments,  according  to  the  tints 
desired. 

In  matching,  the  wavy  appearance  of  some  woods 
may  be  given  by  a  tremulous  movement  of  the  hand, 
and  the  mottled  appearance  of  others  by  dabbing  with  a 
badger  softener  or  clean,  soft  dusting-brush  while  the 
colour  is  still  wet.  Veins  either  black  or  red  may  be 
given  by  picking  up  a  little  dry  black  or  red  stain  on 
the  corner  of  the  tuft  of  wadding  and  applying  it  care¬ 
fully,  taking  some  adjacent  portion  as  a  guide  for 
pattern.  For  rosewood,  red  stain  and  dry  black  may  be 
used  in  combination  ;  for  birch  or  oak,  use  yellow  ochre. 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


95 


When  the  work  in  hand  is  large,  and  requires  staining 
all  over,  and  it  is  not  possible  to  gain  the  desired  result 
by  means  of  dyed  polish  applied  with  the  rubber,  the 
colours  should  be  mixed  in  a  pot  with  3  parts  of  spirit 
to  one  of  polish,  and  applied  with  a  camel-hair  brush. 
The  work  is  not  so  liable  to  get  patchy  with  two  or 
more  coats  of  weak  stain  as  with  one  strong  one. 

After  laying  on  the  stain  allow  a  few  minutes  to 
elapse  for  it  to  set,  then  smooth  down  with  a  piece  of 
worn,  fine  glass-paper,  and  give  a  coat  of  thin  brush 
polish  or  spirit  varnish.  This  will  set  the  colours 
previous  to  polishing,  which  can  be  proceeded  with  in 
about  ten  minutes.  Mahogany,  rosewood,  and  walnut, 
if  not  inlaid,  are  generally  improved  by  the  use  of  a 
polish  tinged  by  the  addition  of  a  little  red  stain.  Other 
colours  may  also  be  mixed  with  polish  to  be  applied 
with  the  rubber.  When  using  these  dyed  polishes  cease 
when  just  the  right  tinge  is  attained  ;  another  rubber  may 
be  used  to  finish  off  with  clear  polish. 

In  repolishing  work  the  foundation  having  been 
already  laid,  the  polish  is  not  required  quite  so  thick  as 
in  polishing  the  bare  wood.  In  the  final  stage,  when 
finishing-off,  any  trace  of  greasiness  may  be  effectually 
removed  by  well-rubbing  with  a  swab  of  clean,  soft  rag, 
fairly  damp  (not  wet)  with  spirits,  on  the  face  of  which 
has  been  sprinkled  a  few  drops  of  glaze. 

Colours  in  a  dry  state  known  as  pigments,  such  as 
Venetian  red,  yellow  ochre,  vegetable  black  or  lampblack, 
umbers,  vandyke  brown,  chromes,  orange  and  lemon, 
greens,  blues,  flake  white,  etc.,  are  useful.  By  the  aid  of 
these,  the  polisher  is  enabled  to  match  woods  and  restore 
faded  polish,  far  more  expeditiously  than  can  be  done 
by  staining  or  using  dyed  polish  or  varnish.  Work  that 
might  puzzle  the  inexperienced  for  hours  can  be  done  in 
a  few  minutes  by  a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  dry  colours. 
They  are  used  in  some  stains  by  mixing  with  ammonia, 
glue  size,  pearlash,  soda,  and  they  are  used  to  colour  the 
“  filling-in  ”  of  whiting  and  turps  to  make  it  match  the 
various  woods.  Venetian  red  is  used  for  mahogany. 


96 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


umber  for  walnut,  black  for  ebony,  and  sometimes  to 
give  an  appearance  of  age  to  oak  by  making  the  grain 
appear  dirty. 

Sometimes  the  polisher  has  a  job  passed  to  him 
that,  properly  speaking,  ought  to  be  done  by  the 
painter.  The  quick  drying  nature  of  the  solutions  of 
shellac,  with  which  the  polisher  is  the  better  acquainted, 
obtains  for  him  the  preference.  For  example  shields, 
etc.,  for  decorative  purposes  that  may  require  five 
different  colours  and  a  coat  of  varnish,  can  be  coloured 
ready  for  fixing  within  twenty-four  hours.  To  do  this 
lime  blue,  chrome  yellow,  vegetable  black,  flake  white, 
and  vermilionette  or  any  other  colours  should  be  mixed 
with  ordinary  French  polish  to  the  consistency  of  thin 
paint,  thinning  out  when  necessary  with  methylated 
spirits.  Three  coats  of  colour  can  be  laid  on,  stencil 
patterns  cut  and  painted,  borders  and  edges  lined,  and 
the  whole  finished  with  a  coat  of  white  hard  varnish 
within  twelve  hours.  To  prevent  the  white  getting  a 
yellowish  tinge,  it  is  well  to  mix  it  with  transparent 
polish  made  from  white  shellac. 

To  make  imitation  marble  which  wears  well,  give 
several  coats  of  flake  white  mixed  in  polish ;  then  put 
in  the  veins  of  blue  or  black  with  feathens,  afterwards 
giving  a  coat  of  white  thinned  out  with  spirits.  This 
has  the  effect  of  making  the  veining  appear  beneath  the 
surface.  When  dry  it  is  finished  by  giving  a  coat  of 
good  quality  copal  varnish. 

For  repolishing  tabletops,  first  wash  them  with  soda- 
water  (a  cupful  of  common  washing  soda  dissolved  in 
1  gal.  of  warm  water)  to  remove  grease,  etc. ;  if  neces¬ 
sary,  use  also  powdered  pumice  or  Bath  brick.  Then 
overhaul  them  for  bruises  and  repairs,  and  where  re¬ 
quired  remove  the  old  polish  with  a  cabinetmaker’s  steel 
scraper  ;  if  not  too  bad,  remove  the  upper  surface  of 
the  polish  by  sprinkling  with  spirits  and  well  rubbing 
with  No.  1  glass-paper,  then  wipe  over  with  raw  linseed 
oil  to  assist  the  new  polish  in  taking  more  kindly  to  the 
old  ;  use  a  grain-filler  where  required,  and  body  up  all 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


97 


bare  places.  Treat  three  tables  at  a  time,  body  up  well 
all  over  and,  on  those  from  which  the  old  polish  has 
been  removed,  apply  a  thin  even  coat  of  spirit  varnish  ; 
also  varnish  all  moulded  edges.  Set  these  tables  aside 
and  treat  three  more  in  a  similar  manner ;  then  follow 
on  with  three  more.  Now  return  to  the  three  tables 
first  taken  in  hand,  body  them  up  well,  and,  as  the  grain 
gets  well  filled  up,  add  a  little  glaze  to  the  rubber  to 
bring  the  shine  up  quickly,  and  instead  of  using  a  rubber 
made  of  wadding,  spirit  off  with  a  swab  of  clean  rag 
made  fairly  damp,  but  not  wet,  with  spirits.  From  sew¬ 
ing-machine  tables  worked  up  on  the  American  system 
of  oil  varnish  it  will  be  difficult  to  remove  the  old  var¬ 
nish  with  a  scraper  or  spirits  ;  in  that  case,  pumice- 
powder  or  oil  must  be  employed,  instead  of  u.sing  spirits 
with  the  glass-paper. 

Work  that  is  painted,  grained,  and  afterwards  French 
polished  is  likely  to  have  a  cracked  appearance.  The 
mistake  is  in  finishing  the  work  with  a  film  of  shellac 
and  other  hard  gums  dissolved  in  spirits  ;  goods  worked 
up  with  oil  paints  should  be  finished  with  an  elastic  oil 
varnish.  The  soft  nature  of  oil  paints  underlying  the 
hard  surface  of  French  polish  does  not  permit  of  a  perfect 
cohesion,  the  paint  pigments  being  still  further  softened 
by  the  action  of  the  methylated  spirit  used,  which 
partially  acts  as  a  paint  solvent.  As  the  paint  recovers 
its  hardness,  it  contracts  or  solidifies,  and  as  the  film  of 
shellac  does  not  yield  to  its  movements  the  surface 
breaks  up,  so  causing  the  cracking  complained  of. 
Goods  such  as  bedroom  furniture  intended  to  be  grained 
in  imitation  of  hard  woods  are  usually  worked  up  on  a 
foundation  of  patent  size  and  gilders’  whiting  ;  the  size 
being  used  moderately  strong.  The  mixture  is  stained 
to  the  required  shade  for  the  ground  work  ;  thus,  Venetian 
red  is  added  for  mahogany,  yellow  ochre  for  oak,  umber 
for  walnut,  etc.  The  mixture  is  applied  hot,  and  should 
be  well  worked  in— not  simply  laid  on  the  surface — a 
second  application  being  given  if  necessary.  Smooth 
down  when  hard  with  worn  glass-paper  or  pumice-powder, 
G 


98 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


then  finish  off  with  a  coat  of  clear  size.  Graining  may 
now  be  done  with  oil  colours  on  similar  lines  to  the 
method  adopted  by  house  painters,  finishing  with  oil 
varnish  ;  but  if  a  Phench-polish  finish  is  desired  the 
graining  may  be  done  in  spirit  colours,  either  aniline  or 
pigments,  afterwards  coated  with  spirit  varnish,  which 
forms  a  good  foundation  for  polishing. 

French-polished  surfaces  that  have  been  worked  up 
by  a  simple  solution  of  shellac  and  spirits  rarely  resist  the 
action  of  spirituous  lirpiors  or  heat.  Counters  and  spirit 
cabinets  are  seldom  F rench  polished  on  those  parts  where 
glasses  are  likely  to  be  set ;  such  parts  are  generally  oiled, 
filled  in,  bodied  up  just  to  fill  the  grain,  and  oil  polished  : 
1  qt.  of  raw  linseed  oil  is  gently  simmered  for  about 
fifteen  minutes,  then  diluted  with  J  pt.  of  best  turpen¬ 
tine.  This  should  be  applied  daily,  first  w'ashing  the 
surface  with  clean  water  to  remove  dirt  or  dust ;  a 
brilliant  surface  that  w’ill  resist  heat  or  the  action  of 
spirits  is  gained  in  a  few  w'eeks’  time.  Another  plan  is 
to  body  up  the  surface,  leaving  it  free  from  greasiness, 
then  apply  an  even  coat  of  good  quality  copal  varnish  ; 
or  after  bodying  up  by  the  usual  method  the  surface  is 
finished  by  a  waterproof  polish  made  up  of  I  oz.  of  gum 
elemi,  I  oz.  of  gum  mastic,  2  oz.  of  gum  sandarach,  and 
I  pt.  of  wood  naphtha.  Apply  similarly  to  French 
polisli,  but  use  almond  oil  as  a  lubricant  instead  of  linseed 
oil. 

The  secret  of  success  in  the  use  of  French-polish  re¬ 
vivers  lies  in  the  ability  to  clear  off  any  trace  of  oil  that 
may  be  used,  and  in  making  the  polished  surface  free 
from  grease  and  dirt.  Some  revivers  combine  the  two 
qualities,  and  act  as  a  cleansing  and  restoring  agent. 
Should  the  article  be  very  dirty,  it  should  be  first 
cleansed  with  warm  soda  water — half  a  small  teacupful 
of  common  washing  soda  dissolved  in  I  gall,  of  w^ater  will 
answer.  The  same  procedure  may  also  be  required  in  the 
case  of  goods  on  which  creams  and  pastes  with  a  wax 
basis  have  been  used.  Good  results  cannot  be  obtained 
from  revivers  containing  oil,  vinegar,  or  spirits,  if  used 


REPOLISHING  AND  REVIVING. 


99 


on  a  surface  previously  cleansed  with  wax.  Furniture 
creams  or  pastes,  or  even  the  old-fashioned  beeswax  and 
turpentine,  wii],  in  the  hands  of  some  persons,  give 
splendid  results.  Assume  that  an  article,  the  polish  of 
which  has  gone  dull,  requires  freshening  up.  Use  a 
mixture  in  equal  quantities  of  rectified  oil  of  amber, 
olive  oil,  and  turps.  The  two  former  are  first  well 
shaken  till  thoroughly  incorprirated,  and  the  mixture  is 
then  thinned  out  with  turpentine.  It  is  applied  rather 
liberally  to  the  article  by  means  of  wadding  ;  rub  well 
to  clear  away  any  dirt  or  sweat,  and  afterwards  wipe  off 
with  a  piece  of  rag.  Then  take  another  piece  of  rag,  fold 
it  up  firmly  till  it  presents  a  face  free  from  creases, 
sprinkle  this  with  methylated  spirit,  and  press  well  in 
till  it  presents  a  fairly  moist  (not  wet)  surface.  With 
this  rag  give  the  article  a  smart  polishing ;  apply  lightly 
at  first,  and  exert  a  little  pressure  as  the  spirit  evaporates. 
The  second  pad,  containing  spirit  only,  is  for  finishing 
the  article ;  take  care  to  clear  away  any  trace  of  oil 
without  disturbing  or  breaking  up  the  lac  surface,  to 
which  continued  friction  has  imparted  a  polish.  In 
the  case  of  goods  on  which  it  is  impracticable  to  use 
soda  water  for  first  cleansing,  it  will  generally  suffice 
to  wipe  over  with  benzoline.  Some  polishers  prefer 
to  use  it  at  the  finishing  stage,  with  the  object  of 
killing  any  grease ;  whilst  others  prefer  to  use  a 
reviver  made  of  vinegar,  oil,  and  spirit,  adding  a  small 
proportion  of  butter  of  antimony  as  a  grease  killer. 
If  complete  success  is  not  met  with  at  the  first 
attempt,  the  fault  may  be  in  the  mode  of  application, 
or  in  the  fact  that  the  original  polish  has  so  sunk 
into  the  wood,  or  perished,  that  there  is  really  no 
good  lac  surface  left  on  which  the  revivers  can  be 
effective. 

A  blistered  French-polish  surface  can  be  renovated 
in  the  following  way.  Wipe  the  damaged  portion  with 
raw.linseed  oil,  then  well  rub  it  with  very  fine  glass-paper 
to  remove  any  roughness.  Wipe  off  the  surplus  oil,  and 
apply  several  coats  of  good  quality  brown  hard  spirit 


100 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


varnish.  Should  the  colour  be  rubbed  off,  carefully 
touch  it  up  with  a  little  of  the  varnish  in  which  a  few 
grains  of  Bismarck  brown  have  been  dissolved.  Use  a 
camel-hair  brush  to  lay  on  the  varnish. 

A  dark  patch  on  a  polished  surface  caused  by  a 
paralfin  lamp  standing  on  it  may  be  removed  by  rubbing 
with  benzoline,  and  a  light  patch,  likely  to  be  caused  by 
water  or  damp,  by  rubbing  with  paraffin.  If  the  former 
does  not  remove  the  dark  patch,  give  several  applications 
of  oxalic  acid  in  water,  then  swill  off  with  clean  water,  and 
finally  wipe  over  with  common  malt  vinegar  to  neutralise 
any  trace  of  the  acid.  This  treatment  will  probably  also 
remove  the  ijolish  ;  if  so,  wipe  over  afterwards,  when  quite 
dry,  with  raw  linseed  oil,  and  repolish  or  bring  up  the 
polished  surface  again  with  beeswax  and  turpentine. 
The  above  instructions  apply  also  to  removing  ink  stains. 

Cracks  in  a  French-polished  surface  may  be  due  to 
“  checking,”  that  is,  swelling  and  shrinkage  of  the  wood 
has  taken  place,  and  the  shellac  film  surface  has  broken 
as  a  consequence.  In  a  lesser  degree  the  trouble  is 
caused  by  “  sweating,”  that  is,  too  much  oil  has  been 
used  ;  this  ultimately  breaks  through  the  lac  surface. 
The  surface  should  be  cleansed  by  wiping  over  with 
water  in  which  soda  has  been  dissolved — a  piece  of 
common  washing  soda  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  I  qt.  of 
water.  Wipe  dry,  then  rub  over  with  raw  linseed  oil  to 
freshen  up  the  surface  ;  wipe  off  again,  then  apply  polish 
to  the  cracked  surface,  using  the  polish  rather  thin  to 
enable  the  under  coats  to  soften  up,  and  the  new  polish 
to  amalgamate  with  it.  Work  each  rubber  out  fairly 
dry  before  recharging  again,  and  spirit  out  instead  of 
using  glaze.  Also,  the  appearance  of  cracked  polished 
surfaces  may  be  improved  by  well  rubbing  with  the 
following  mixture — 3  oz.  of  beeswax,  6  oz.  of  water,  and 
2  oz.  of  pearlash  ;  dissolve  by  gentle  heat,  then  add  4  oz. 
of  boiled  linseed  oil  and  5  oz.  of  turpentine  ;  shake  up, 
and  apply  w'ith  a  soft  flannel,  then  wipe  off  with  a  clean 
soft  rag.  The  following  case  is  interesting  in  the  above 
connection.  Some  French  polishing  that  was  done  in  a 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


101 


large  mansion,  with  the  best  materials,  ra})id]y  showed 
signs  of  cracking.  After  the  polishing  was  finished,  a 
large  quantity  of  naphthalene,  camphor,  and  other  in¬ 
gredients  was  burnt  in  the  house,  in  order  to  destroy 
moths.  The  fumes  arising  from  a  large  Quantity  of 
burning  disinfectants  would  no  doubt  act  disastrously 
on  the  surface  of  recently  polished  work  ;  but  several 
other  causes  also  might  create  a  similar  trouble.  If  the 
work  was  old,  and  had  been  cleansed  and  repolished,  the 
use  of  too  strong  soda  water  for  cleansing  purposes  may 
have  caused  the  original  polish  to  perish,  and  formed  a 
rotten  foundation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  old  polish 
may  have  been  extremely  hard,  and  on  this  a  softer 
variety  of  polish  had  been  used  ;  the  uniting  of  a  hard 
with  a  soft  film  often  causes  what  is  commonly  called 
checking,  or,  in  other  words,  the  upper  surface  cracks 
and  forms  minute  fissures.  This  result  is  hastened  or 
retarded  according  to  the  method  that  is  adopted  in 
beginning  the  work  of  repolishing.  If  thick  polish  is  at 
once  applied  to  the  old  polish,  the  trouble  soon  shows 
itself ;  on  the  other  hand,  wiping  over  the  work  with 
raw  linseed  oil  after  cleaning  assists  the  new  polish  to 
take  more  kindly  to  the  old.  The  first  few  rubbers  of 
polish  should  be  used  much  diluted  with  sjurits,  with 
the  object  of  softening  up  the  old  polish,  so  causing  a 
more  perfect  cohesion  between  the  two.  Again,  in  many 
old  houses,  the  woodwork  is  finished  with  oil  varnish, 
and  not  French  polished,  in  such  a  case  the  founda¬ 
tion  is  of  an  entirely  different  composition  from 
the  French  polish  that  has  been  recently  used,  and 
consequently  checking  is  soon  apparent.  Using  French 
polish  that  has  been  bought  already  prepared  may  be 
another  source  of  trouble,  unless  the  spirit  that  was  used 
in  the  polishing  was  obtained  from  the  same  source.  One 
brand  of  spirit  may  have  been  used  in  the  preparation  of 
the  polish  and  another  brand  used  for  diluting  and  clear¬ 
ing  out,  or  methylated  finish  may  have  been  used  instead 
of  methylated  spirit ;  one  of  these  is  (for  excise  purposes) 
made  impotable  by  adding  naphtha,  and  the  other  is 


102 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


made  impotable  by  adding  soft  gums  or  resin.  If  tbe 
work  is  cracked  so  badly  that  it  must  be  repolislied,  the 
thickness  of  the  polish  that  is  now  on  the  work  must  bo 
reduced  with  powdered  pumice  and  water  ;  cutting  the 
polish  down  with  glass-paper  is  not  advised,  because  the 
glass-paper  will  remove  any  glaze  that  may  have  been 
used  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  oil ;  pumice-stone 
also  forms  a  smoother  surface  to  work  on.  In  the  case 
of  wall  panelling,  the  shrinkage  or  expansion  of  the 
wider  sections  will  crack  the  hard  film  of  polish. 

Sci’atches  on  French  polish,  if  very  slight,  may  be 
somewhat  disguised  by  rubbing  with  raw  linseed  oil. 
lleep  scratches  can  only  be  removed  by  a  iirocess  that 
will  disturb  the  original  polish.  The  damaged  portions 
must  be  scrajjed  and  glass-papered  out ;  sometimes  it  is 
possible  to  draw  them  up  level  by  means  of  a  moder¬ 
ately  hot  iron  pressed  against  apiece  of  wet  rag  laid  over 
the  defect.  In  either  case,  repolishing  the  article  will  be 
necessary,  and  as  in  most  cases  the  portions  from  which 
the  polish  has  been  removed  will  appear  much  lighter 
in  colour,  it  is  often  more  satisfactory  to  remove  the 
whole  of  the  polish  before  attempting  to  repolish. 

Whitcwood,  stained  with  permanganate  of  potash 
and  French  polished,  may  possibly  fade  in  a  few  weeks’ 
time.  The  remedy  is  as  follows  :  If  there  is  a  heavy 
body  of  jiolish  on  the  work,  this  should  be  reduced  by 
scouring  with  water  and  medium  grade  pumice-powder, 
using  canvas,  cloth,  or  coarse  rag  instead  of  a  brush. 
If  the  coating  of  polish  is  thin,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
rub  it  down  with  No.  0  glass-paper ;  it  can  then  be 
coloured  up  to  resemble  walnut  (if  desired).  The 
coloured  polish  will  be  more  evenly  distributed  by  a 
camel-hair  brush  than  by  a  polish  rubber.  Vandyke 
brown  or  brown  umber  (in  dry  powder  form)  should  be 
mixed  in  equal  parts  of  polish  and  spirits  till  it  gives 
the  desired  colour  after  two  or  three  applications ;  or  use  a 
brown  aniline  dye,  sold  as  walnut  stain,  which  is  dissolved 
in  spirits  on  similar  lines  to  Bismarck  brown,  which  gives 
a  red  stain.  Avoid  patchiness,  and  work  from  end  to  end, 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


103 


gradations  of  tone  and  figure,  if  desired,  being  put  in  by- 
varying  the  pressure  on  the  brush,  and  stippling  the  still 
moist  colour  with  another  soft  brush  free  from  liquid. 
When  quite  dry  ease  off  any  apparent  roughness  by  gentle 
rubbing  with  worn  fine  glass-paper,  and  apply  a  coat  of 
spirit  varnish  or  rather  thick  polish  by  means  of  the  brush 
that  has  been  used  for  colouring  up.  Next  day  the  work 
may  be  polished  in  the  usual  way,  and  it  will  remove 
the  harshness  and  cause  the  colours  to  blend  together 
better  if  the  polish  used  is  slightly  tinged  with  red. 

When  a  French-polished  surface  a  few  days  old  shows 
finger  marks  when  touched,  either  the  ingredients  used 
were  soft  or  too  much  oil  was  employed.  Shellac  and 
spirit  will  yield  a  hard  surface  if  properly  applied. 
Kemove  the  grease  now  on  by  wiping  over  with  benzo¬ 
line,  then  polish  again,  using  half  spirit  and  half  polish, 
and  be  sparing  with  the  oil.  Finish  ofif  with  a  swab  of 
clean  soft  rag  made  fairly  moist  (not  wet)  with  spirit 
instead  of  a  spirit  rubber  made  of  wadding.  When  the 
polish  comes  off  and  shows  white  marks  when  touched 
the  causes  are  insufficient  body  of  polish,  excessive  use 
of  resin  either  in  the  varnish  or  polish,  excessive  use  of 
oil,  and  the  polish  being  merely  laid  on  the  surface 
instead  of  being  well  rubbed  in,  are  probable  causes. 
Wash  the  furniture  with  a  teacupful  of  common  soda 
dissolved  in  1  gal.  of  water  ;  then  repolish  with  polish 
made  by  dissolving  about  4  oz.  of  best  orange  shellac  in 
1  pt.  of  methylated  spirit.  If  varnish  must  be  used,  good 
quality  brown  hard  spirit  varnish  will  be  suitable. 

French  polish  containing  an  excess  of  soft  gums  or 
resin  will  readily  show  marks  caused  by  water  falling  on 
the  polished  surface  and  allowed  to  stay  there.  The 
original  colour  can  often  be  restored  by  wdping  over  with 
raw  linseed  oil  and  rubbing  the  surface  with  a  swab  of 
clean  rag  made  moist  (not  wet)  with  methylated  spirit ; 
apply  lightly  at  first  and  exert  slight  pressure  as  the 
spirit  dies  out.  When  the  French-polished  surface  has 
been  restored  to  its  original  colour  and  all  trace  of 
greasiness  is  removed,  wipe  over  with  benzoline  or  with 


104 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


water  in  which  common  washing  soda  has  been  dissolved 
(a  lump  of  soda  the  size  of  a  walnut  in  1  pt.  of  water), 
and  then  give  the  work  an  even  coat  of  good  quality 
copal  varnish.  On  such  goods  this  will  produce  a 
better  wearing  surface  than  anything  else,  and  will  not 
readily  mark  with  water. 

When  polish  goes  dull  a  day  or  so  after  it  has  been 
applied,  something  is  wrong  with  the  oil  or  with  the  way  in 
which  it  was  employed.  Linseed  oil  is  the  only  oil  that 
should  be  used.  Its  object  is,  first,  to  bring  out  the  beauty 
of  the  figure  of  the  wood,  if  fancy  woods  are  used;  secondly, 
it  serves  as  a  lubricant  only  to  enable  the  lac  solution  to 
be  evenly  distributed.  It  forms  no  part  of  the  polish  in 
itsel  f,  and  should  therefore  be  used  rather  sparingly.  The 
secret  of  success  in  building  up  a  bright,  level,  lustrous 
surface  lies  in  the  ability  so  to  manipulate  the  polish 
that  the  oil  is  kept  on  the  surface,  not  allowed  to  be 
fixed  between  the  various  coatings  of  shellac.  After  a 
sufficient  body  of  shellac  has  been  deposited,  the  polisher 
should  try  to  enhance  its  brightness  by  friction,  at  the 
same  time  changing  the  position  of  the  rag  covering 
occasionally  in  order  to  remove  all  possible  traces  of  the 
oil.  This  final  operation  is  to  many  persons  the  chief 
stumbling-block  ;  they  generally  make  the  spirit  rubber, 
or  swab  of  clean  soft  rag,  too  wet  with  spirits  ;  it  should 
be  made  fairly  moist,  and  be  pressed  well  in  by  squeez¬ 
ing  between  the  hands.  Apply  with  a  light,  swing¬ 
ing  motion  at  first,  exerting  slight  pressure  as  the 
spirit  dries  out.  The  operation  may  be  repeated  several 
times.  Should  the  cleaning-out  pad  be  made  too  wet 
there  is  always  a  risk  of  softening  the  film  of  lac  to  such 
extent  as  to  cause  the  surface  to  break  up.  On  the 
other  hand,  should  the  surface  appear  to  be  full  of 
marks  that  will  not  clear  out,  it  will  be  wise  to  use  the 
polish  rubber  again,  using  a  trace  more  of  oil ;  then  try 
the  cleaning-out  pad  again. 

The  following  instructions  apply  to  the  repolishing 
of  a  stained  Chi23pendale  mahogany  chair  that  has 
been  considerably  knocked  about.  It  must  be 


EEPOLISHING  AND  REVIVING. 


105 


smoothed  with  No.  1  glass-paper,  followed  by  finer 
grades  of  paper,  say  No.  0  to  00.  If  the  colour  is 
patchy  it  must  be  touched  up  v.’ith  stain.  Get  a 
pennyworth  of  rose  pink  and  mix  to  a,  thin  paste 
with  thin  hot  glue  ;  put  some  of  this  on  a  rag,  rub  the 
bare  parts,  and  allow  to  dry.  Get  4  oz.  of  orange  shellac 
and  i  pt.  of  methylated  spirit,  place  the  shellac  in  the 
spirit,  and  put  in  a  warm  cupboard  ;  when  the  whole  has 
dissolved,  strain  through  fine  cotton  cloth.  Get  a  penny¬ 
worth  of  raw  linseed  oil  and  keep  in  a  separate  bottle. 
To  begin  polishing,  wipe  the  whole  chair  frame  with  a 
rag  charged  sparingly  with  the  oil.  Make  up  a  swab  of 
soft  rags  and  charge  with  the  polish,  and  gently  but 
firmly  rub  all  over  the  frames  until  nearly  dry,  then  re¬ 
charge  with  polish  and  repeat.  Should  the  rubber  have 
any  tendency  to  drag  or  stick,  moisten  it  with  a  spot  of 
oil  on  the  tip  of  the  finger.  When  the  surface  has  been 
got  smooth  and  hard,  allow  to  stand  for  some  time,  and 
make  up  a  clean  swab  of  cloth  just  damped  with  clean 
spirit  and  rub  till  the  gloss  comes  up.  All  these  oper¬ 
ations  should  be  done  in  a  warm  room. 

The  turning  white  of  a  French-polished  surface  will 
cause  trouble.  If  the  filling  in  has  been  done  with  any¬ 
thing  of  a  hot  nature,  such  as  benzoline,  or  the  work 
bleached  with  oxalic  acid  without  taking  the  precaution 
to  kill  its  action  by  wiping  over  with  common  vinegar, 
it  will  cause  the  polish  to  show  white  in  the  grain. 
If  this  is  not  the  cause  of  the  trouble,  perhaps  the 
work  is  merely  surface-stained,  and  so  the  polish  is 
easily  rubbed  off  the  chamfer  edges  and  sharp  members 
of  mouldings. 

White  streaks  may  be  caused  by  any  of  the 
following  ;  Veneer  cleaned  up  before  the  glue  has  thor¬ 
oughly  dried,  applying  polish  too  soon  after  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  water  stains,  using  plaster-of-Paris  as  a  grain- 
filler,  spirits  adulterated  with  benzoline,  or  excessive 
damp  acting  on  the  polish  in  some  manner.  Wiping 
over  with  equal  partslof  raw  linseed  oil  and  turps,  then 
plearing  out  again  with  spirits,  will  sometimes  restore 


106 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


the  colour.  In  some  cases  nothing  short  of  repolisliing 
will  prove  effective. 

Excessive  moisture,  either  on  the  work  through  not 
being  wiped  dry  after  washing,  or  in  the  materials,  is  a 
frequent  cause  of  polish  turning  white.  For  remedy, 
remove  the  work  to  a  warm  room  and  rub  briskly  with 
a  piece  of  Hannel  made  fairly  wet  with  spirits  and  oil  in 
equal  parts  ;  then  give  it  a  good  rubber  of  polish,  and 
then  a  level,  flowing  coat  of  fresh  spirit  varnish,  that  has 
not  absorbed  moisture  by  long,  exposure  to  .the  air  ; 
the  warmth  of  the  room  and  the  extra  polish  and  var¬ 
nish  condhned  should  restore  the  colour.  Of  course,  the 
work  can  be  enriched  in  colour  by  the  addition  of  a  few 
drops  of  “  red  stain  ”  either  in  the  polish  or  varnish. 

Plaster-of-Faris,  though.often  used  as  a  grain-filler,  is 
not  recommended.  When  it  contains  lime  this  may 
eat  its  way  through  the  stain  and  show  white.  Whiting 
made  into  a  paste  with  turpentine  is  a  more  reliable  grain- 
filler,  and  does  not  work  through  the  colour  like  plaster. 
The  grain-iiller  should  be  tinted  with  Venetian  red  or 
other  suitable  pigment  to  match  the  work  (say  mahogany), 
because  the  stain  is  not  strong  enough  to  penetrate  the 
white  substance  that  is  used  as  a  filler.  Bismarck  brown 
added  as  a  dye  to  the  polish  is  apt  to  fade  if  the  coloured 
polish  is  used  all  the  way  through  ;  the  coloured  polish 
should  be  used  only  for  bodying  up  ;  then  when  the 
correct  colour  is  obtained,  finish  off  with  polish  free  from 
stain.  The  remedy  for  white  marks  caused  by  the  filler 
is  to  remove  the  present  polish  and  start  again  ;  but  as 
this  may  prove  an  expensive  job,  the  thickness  of  the 
polish  may  be  reduced  by  well  rubbing  with  pumice- 
powder  in  water  or  oil.  Then  repolish  again,  touching  up 
the  worst  places  with  colour  in  order  to  hide  the  defects. 
Allow  the  work  to  dry  thoroughly  before  repolishiug  is 
attempted. 

French  polishing  done  at  some  seaside  towns  .be¬ 
comes  eaten  into  by  the  salt  particles  in  the  atmosphere. 
To  avoid  this,  great  pains  need  be  taken  in  polishing  to 
get  a  good  body  of  polish  on  the  work.  Starting  with 


EEPOLISHING  AND  EEVIVING. 


107 


tlie  new  wood,  apply,  either  by  a  pad  or  camel-hair 
brash,  three  or  four  coats  of  shellac  dissolved  in  spirits. 
Ilub  down  quite  smooth  with  hair-cloth  or  felt,  pumice- 
stone  powder,  and  linseed  oil,  wipe  down  perfectly 
clean,  and  finish  with  waterproof  polish  made  as  follows  : 
Take  3  oz.  of  gum  benzoin,  1  oz.  of  gum  sandarach, 
1  oz.  of  gum  anime,  and  dissolve  in  1  pt.  of  methylated 
spirit.  Strain  off,  then  add  J  gill  of  poppy  oil.  Another 
plan,  giving  a  more  solid  body,  is  to  body  up  as  for 
spiriting  out ;  dull  down  with  pumice  and  water  to  kill 
any  trace  of  oil,  then  finish  off  with  one  or  more  coats  of 
good  quality  outside  oak  varnish.  For  old  work,  cleanse 
with  weak  common  washing  soda  water ;  repolish  to 
gain  a  good  colour.  Kill  the  oil  by  wiping  over  with 
benzoline,  and  apply  a  flowing  coat  of  oak  varnish  as 
for  new  work. 


108 


CHAPTER  XI. 

PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING  WOOD. 

« 

An  idea  more  or  less  prevalent  among  those  who  do 
not  make  the  finishing  of  woods  a  business,  is  that 
mahogany  should  generally  be  French  polished,  and  that 
other  hard  woods  should  either  be  polished  in  wax  or 
stained  and  varnished.  These  methods  have  their  advan¬ 
tages,  though  they  are  not  always  the  best  to  follow  by 
those  who  desire  to  finish  some  piece  of  woodwork  quickly 
and  economically,  and  to  produce  a  good  result  without 
much  trouble.  For  such  work  there  is  probably  no 
better  method  than  that  of  using  shellac  varnish ;  all 
ordinary  articles  up  to  medium-priced  furniture  may  be 
finished  in  this  way,  provided  that  the  wood  is  not 
mahogany  ;  and  even  then  it  may  be  employed  if  the 
operator  cannot  manage  French  polishing.  The  advan¬ 
tage  of  using  shellac  for  a  foundation  in  finishing  all 
kinds  of  wood,  both  soft  and  hard,  is  principally  that  it 
liroduces  an  extremely  hard  surface  when  dry.  As 
it  dries  snfliciently  Inrd  iu  a  few  hours  to  admit  of 
sand-papering,  the  work  may  be  done  expeditiously. 
Moreover,  shellac  so  effectually  seals  up  the  pores  of 
the  wood,  that  when  applied  to  the  resinous  timbers,  it 
even  prevents  the  exudation  of  resin.  Some  years  ago 
furniture  finishers  used  shellac  on  open-grained  woods 
without  the  filler,  and  this  is  done  to  some  extent  now ; 
but  experience  has  shown  that  the  use  of  paste  filler 
is  economical  both  in  time  and  material. 

To  be  successful  in  the  use  of  spirit  varnish  it  is 
desirable  that  one  should  be  somewhat  acquainted  with 
the  method  of  French  polishing,  for  this  gives,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  key  to  success.  Unlike  oil  varnish,  spirit 
varnish,  as  a  rule  does  not  flow  level  after  leaving  the 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING  "WOOD.  109 


brush.  The  beautiful  level  surface  of  oil  varnish,  as 
seen  on  carriage  bodies,  is  gained  by  allowing  the  first 
coat  to  get  perfectly  dry,  and  then  rubbing  it  down 
smooth  by  means  of  pumice  in  lump  or  in  powder 
before  applying  the  next  coat. 

The  same  principle  underlies  the  successful  use  of 
spirit  varnish.  Each  successive  coat  should  be  levelled 
by  the  aid  of  fine  glass-paper  or  the  polish-rubber ; 
and  it  will  further  tend  to  success  if,  before  any 
varnish  is  applied,  the  pores  of  the  wood  are  sealed, 
either  by  the  aid  of  a  coat  of  size  or  by  filling  in  and 
spreading  over  the  work  a  few  good  rubbers  full  of 
polish.  For  small  work  the  latter  plan  is  recommended. 
Its  object  is  twofold — it  prevents  the  absorption  of 
varnish  by  the  unclosed  pores  of  the  wood,  and  keeps 
down  the  grain,  which  otherwise  is  apt  to  rise  if  no 
precautionary  measures  are  taken. 

A  custom  is  now  gaining  in  public  favour  of  finishing 
many  of  the  small  knick-knacks  and  fancy  articles  of 
furniture  with  enamel  paints,  in  preference  to  polishing 
or  varnishing.  This  enamelling  has  much  to  recom¬ 
mend  it,  for  apart  from  the  pleasing  variety  thus 
gained  by  the  use  of  artistic  colours,  and  the  fact  that 
the  articles  can  be  made  out  of  commoner,  and  conse¬ 
quently  cheaper,  woods,  the  enamel  is  easy  of  applica¬ 
tion,  thus  rendering  it  of  service  alike  in  the  finishing 
of  new  goods  and  the  renovation  of  old  goods,  in  many 
cases  giving  the  latter  a  new  lease  of  life.  The  foundation 
of  some  of  these  enamels  is  spirit  varnish,  carefully  mixed 
and  blended  with  some  dry  pigment  of  the  required 
shade.  Before  their  use  it  is  advisable  to  give  new 
work  a  coat  of  size,  but  no  other  preparation  is  needed, 
not  even  levelling  down  by  means  of  the  polish-rubber. 
Moreover,  some  goods  may  be  given  a  pleasing  finish  by 
thinning  out  the  last  coat  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
methylated  spirit  or  linseed-oil,  which  will  give  a  semi- 
lustrous  or  egg-shell  finish  that  does  not  show  up  the 
inequalities  of  the  woodwork  to  such  prominence  as  a 
bright  finish  would. 


no 


WOOD  FINISHING, 


Brushes  for  applying  spirit  varnish,  whether  clear 
or  in  the  form  of  enamels,  should  be  camel-hair  of  the 
kind  known  as  gilders’  mops  (Fig.  8).  These  are  strongly 
recommended,  as  the  majority  are  far  superior  to  those 
inserted  in  wood  handles,  whether  round  or  flat.  Those 
in  tin  should  also  be  avoided  unless  they  can  be  washed 
out  in  methylated  spirit  and  put  aside  when  not  in 
use.  For  domestic  purposes  the  varnish  should  be 
kept  in  a  large-mouthed  glass  bottle,  with  the  brush 
suspended  from  the  cork  (Fig.  9).  This  keeps  it  always 
at  hand  and  in  lit  condition.  Glass  or  earthenware 


Fig.  8. — Gilder’s  Mop  for  Use  as  Spirit  Varnish  Brush. 


jars  only  should  be  used.  Varnish  containing  shellac  has 
a  sort  of  corrosive  action  on  tin,  causing  the  varnish  to 
turn  dark-coloured  and  to  smell  disagreeably. 

When  only  a  small  quantity  of  varnish  is  required, 
it  is  probable  that  the  cost  of  gums,  etc.,  would  really 
cause  it  to  be  too  expensive  to  make.  Those  who  make 
a  speciality  of  varnish  making  have  the  pick  of  the 
market,  coupled  with  an  extensive  experience  of  the 
nature  of  the  materials  and  requirements  of  their 
customers,  and  they  can  turn  out  a  superior  varnish, 
and  in  most  cases  can  sell  it  at  a  less  cost  than  it  can 
be  made  at  home. 

jManufacturers  claim  that  oil  varnish  .should  be  used 
just  as  it  is  sold.  While  it  is  true  that  it  is  a  mistake 
to  add  anything  to  the  finer  grades  of  varnish,  the  poor 
qualities  are  often  too  thick  to  work  freely  without 
diluting.  If,  therefore,  it  is  necessary,  add  turpentine 
until  the  varnish  spreads  freely  with  a  fitch.  After 
varnishing,  the  work  should  be  laid  aside  for  at  least 
twenty-four  hours,  by  which  time  the  coat  will  be  hard. 


PROCESSES  OE  VARNISHIKG  WOOD.  Ill 


although  if  too  much  varnish  has  been  used,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  give  the  work  more  time  before  applying 
the  next  coat.  A  coat  of  varnish  over  one  that  is  not 
perfectly  hard  will  almost  invariably  result  in  “  sweat¬ 
ing,”  which  will  necessitate  scraping  the  work  and  re¬ 
commencing  the  job  from  the  beginning ;  although  if 
the  sweating  is  only  of  a  mild  nature,  an  application  of 
pumice-stone  and  water  may  remove  it. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  shellac  gum — orange  and 
white.  They  may  be  bought  dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine 


Fig.  9.— Household  Varnish  Jar. 


ready  for  use,  and  also  dry  in  the  shell-like  lacs.  If 
purchased  in  the  lac,  to  prepare  for  use,  dissolve  2i  lbs. 
of  the  white  or  2  lbs.  of  the  orange  shellac  in  J  gal.  of 
spirits  of  wine.  The  white  shellac  costs  more  than  the 
orange,  but  it  produces  a  cleaner  and  neater  job  when 
it  is  desired  to  give  a  light  finish.  It  is  used  for  making 
transparent  polish  and  varnish,  such  aa  that  used  on 
light-coloured  goods  and  inlays.  When  bought  it  is  not 
in  flakes,  like  the  orange,  but  is  in  the  form  of  white 
twisted  sticks,  and  being  kept  in  stock  under  water,  it 


112 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


will  naturally  be  damp.  Therefore  take  the  precaution 
to  crush  the  gum  well,  and  spread  it  out  in  a  warm  room 
to  dry  before  adding  the  spirits.  If  the  shellac  solution 
becomes  too  thick  in  consequence  of  the  evaporation  of 
the  spirit,  it  may  be  reduced  to  the  required  consistency 
by  adding  more  and  agitating  the  mixture — preferably 
in  a  warm  place.  Sometimes  wood  naphtha  is  used 
instead  of  pure  alcohol,  but  the  smell  is  so  objectionable 
to  those  at  work  with  it  that  it  is  not  generally  used  in 
first-class  work. 

The  components  of  spirit  varnish  vary,  and  the  price 
obtainable  for  the  job,  whether  common  or  best  work,  is 
an  important  factor  in  determining  the  quality.  Shellac 
generally  forms  the  basis,  and  little  else  in  the  way  of 
materials  can  be  used  when  really  good  work  has  to  be 
done.  The  addition  of  2  oz.  of  resin  to  a  pint  of  French 
Ijolish  makes  a  varnish  that  will  suit  for  common  work  ; 
the  addition  of  gum  benzoin  instead  of  resin  will  suit 
for  best  work. 

Varnish  should  always  be  applied  in  a  warm  room  free 
from  dust.  Work  spirit  varnished  is  greatly  improved  by 
the  levelling-down  process  previously  mentioned.  For 
this  process  the  polish-rubber  is  required  to  be  soft  and 
pliable,  with  rag  covering,  and  a  flat  face  free  from 
creases.  When  a  coat  of  varnish  is  half  dry — say,  in 
ten  minutes — rub  lightly  in  the  way  usual  when  French 
polishing  with  the  rubber  charged  with  half  polish  and 
half  spirits,  adding  more  spirits  as  required.  It  will 
further  tend  to  improve  if,  when  rubbing  down  the  last 
coat,  a  few  drops  of  glaze  are  added  to  the  rubber. 

When  stained  and  thoroughly  dry,  the  work  is  in  a 
condition  to  receive  the  first  coat  of  varnish.  It  is  of 
importance  that  the  work  shall  be  in  a  perfectly  dry 
condition,  and  this  can  readily  be  ascertained  by  noticing 
the  uniformly  dead  appearance  it  presents,  especially  at 
the  corners  and  angles.  All  woods  may  have  shellac  for 
a  first  coat  of  varnish.  Birch,  maple,  and  poplar  may 
readily  be  stained  to  imitate  cherry,  and  require  no 
filling  ;  but  oak,  ash,  walnut,  etc.,  are  best  treated  with 


PEOCESSES  OF  VAENISHING  WOOD. 


113 


a  filler  to  close  the  pores  of  the  wood.  When  all  the 
filler  has  been  thoroughly  removed,  clean  the  work 
down  with  cotton-waste,  and  it  is  then  ready  to  receive 
the  first  coat  of  shellac.  Where  filling  is  not  used, 
the  shellac  is  applied  after  the  work  is  sand-papered 
and  stained. 

The  application  of  the  shellac  is  often  difficult  to  the 
beginner,  although  to  the  experienced  hand  it  is  perhaps 
the  most  pleasant  part  of  the  job,  because  its  results  are 
always  the  same.  The  object  is  to  apply  the  shellac 
uniformly  over  the  surface  ;  and  this  to  an  inexperienced 
hand  is  not  easy,  because  the  spirit  evaporates  quickly, 
and  he  is  likely  to  go  over  the  same  ground  twice,  pro¬ 
ducing  objectionable  laps  and  unevenness. 

If  the  work  consists  of  panelling,  the  panels  should 
be  done  first  and  the  stiles  and  rails  afterwards,  finish¬ 
ing  with  the  mouldings.  The  size  of  brushes  used  will 
depend  upon  the  class  of  work  under  treatment,  but 
comparatively  small  brushes  will  answer  best  in  most 
cases.  It  is  of  importance  to  remember  that  the  shellac 
must  always  be  laid  on  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and 
when  the  brush  is  handled  quickly  and  in  a  workmanlike 
manner  the  difficulties  wiU  not  be  great.  It  should  also 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  warmer  a  room  is  the  quicker 
will  the  spirit  evaporate  and  the  coating  of  shellac  harden. 

After  the  coat  of  shellac  has  been  on,  say,  six  hours, 
it  should  be  glass-paperedito  render  the  surface  perfectly 
level.  Use  a  thin  glass-paper  of  a  fine  grade  ;  divide  a 
sheet  into  four  equal  parts,  and  place  the  ends  of  a  piece 
over  the  little  finger  and  thumb.  Kub  fairly  hard,  but 
go  very  lightly  over  edges  and  mouldings,  taking  care  not 
to  cut  through  the  varnish  on  protruding  parts  and 
edges.  To  reach  corners,  fold  a  piece  of  glass-paper 
into  a  triangle,  moistening  the  paper  if  necessary.  New 
glass-paper  often  scratches  unevenly,  and  it  is  advisable 
to  rub  two  pieces  together  to  remove  grit.  Horsehair 
cloth  may  be  used  in  very  fine  work  instead  of  glass- 
paper.  This  can  be  obtained  at  any  furniture  repairing 
shop.  Old  cloth  answers,  and  the  hair  side  is  msod.  '< 

H 


114 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Having  been  thoroughly  dusted  off,  the  work  is  now 
ready  for  a  second  coat  of  shellac.  This  will  be  applied 
exactly  in  the  same  way  as  the  first,  and  then,  after 
glass-papering,  it  will  be  ready  to  receive  the  first  coat 
of  varnish.  The  varnishing  done  on  this  foundation 
may  be  of  any  quality,  from  cheap  one-coat  work  up  to 
a  piano  finish.  If  one  coat  only  is  to  be  used,  a  varnish 
should  be  employed  that  will  dry  with  a  good  gloss. 
As  a  rule,  two  coats  of  varnish  will  be  required,  and 
the  method  of  application  will  probably  be  the  same 
whatever  number  of  coats  are  given. 

To  apply  varnish  properly  requires  a  good  deal  of 
practice,  and  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  rules  that 
shall  govern  the  process.  The  inexperienced  almost 
invariably  apply  too  much  varnish,  the  inevitable  result 
being  that  the  work  cracks — an  effect  that  destroys  all 
pretensions  to  a  good  job.  The  following  are  given 
merely  as  hints  :  Dip  the  brush  well  into  the  varnish 
and  lay  it  on  across  the  grain,  commencing  at  the  least 
exposed  portions  of  the  work,  so  that  in  case  it  has  to 
be  handled  the  more  prominent  parts  may  not  be  marred. 
The  varnish  can  should  be  provided  with  a  wire  or  bar 
soldered  across  the  middle  of  the  mouth.  Dip  the  brush 
as  may  be  required,  wipe  it  off  on  this  bar,  and  lay  off  on 
the  work  as  before.  Stab  the  brush  well  into  angles  and 
corners.  When  the  whole  surface  has  been  roughly 
covered,  wipe  the  brush  again  on  the  bar,  removing  all 
the  varnish  possible ;  then  lay  off  the  work  with  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  draw  the  brush  backwards  and 
forwards,  and  wipe  it  again  if  necessary.  Repeat  this 
operation  until  a  perfectly  level  surface  is  obtained.  If 
there  are  grooves  or  depressions  in  the  work  they  will 
retain  more  varnish  than  the  plain  surface,  and  to 
prevent  the  surplus  running  down,  the  brush  must  be 
stabbed  in  and  drawn  out  towards  the  main  surface. 
It  will  be  understood  that  the  last  coat  of  varnish 
introduced  will  make  a  very  good  job  if  the  underneath 
coats  of  varnish  and  shellac  respectively  have  been 
treated  carefully  in  the  manner  described. 


PBOCESSES  OF  VARNISHING  WOOD.  116 


The  process  of  rubbing  down  with  pumice-stone  is 
only  applied  when  an  extra  fine  finish  is  required,  and 
in  that  case  after  the  surface  has  been  cleaned  off  the 
final  operation  of  cleaning  the  work  is  proceeded  with. 
Dip  a  small  paint-brush  in  rubbing-oil  thinned  down  with 
either  petroleum  or  benzine  (the  finest  grades  obtainable 
should  be  used),  and  lightly  paint  over  any  mouldings, 
carvings,  etc.  Then  go  over  the  surface  with  a  small 
cotton  rag  dipped  in  the  oil,  and  rub  off  all  with  a 
dry  rag,  using  also  a  clean  brush  to  clean  out  the  oil 
from  the  lines,  carvings,  etc. ;  and  take  care  that  all  the 
oil  is  removed.  Then  take  a  soft  rag  moistened  with 
alcohol,  and  go  lightly  over  the  whole  work.  As  varnish 
will  dissolve  in  alcohol,  care  must  be  taken  to  do  this 
very  lightly  and  quickly. 

Where  a  fine  finish  is  required,  the  best  results  are 
obtained  by  rubbing  down  each  successive  coat  of  var¬ 
nish  as  it  dries,  and  in  that  case  a  varnish  that  admits  of 
rubbing  must  be  used.  When  the  first  coat  is  thoroughly 
hard,  take  a  piece  of  hair-cloth  or  worn  sand-paper  and 
lightly  rub  down  the  surface.  Kub  with  the  grain  of 
the  wood,  and  take  care  not  to  tear  the  varnish  nor 
wear  it  through.  Then  clean  the  surface  off  thoroughly 
with  the  dusting-brush,  and  proceed  to  the  second  coat. 
Apply  the  second  somewhat  more  heavily  than  the  first 
coat,  but  take  great  care  not  to  work  up  the  under  coat. 
The  second  coat  will  require  thirty  hours  before  a  third 
is  applied.  If  more  than  three  coats  are  to  be  given,  the 
thickness  of  each  coat  must  be  reduced  accordingly. 
Between  each  coat  of  varnish  a  rubbing  should  be 
given  as  described,  and  for  the  best  class  of  work  the 
final  coat  may  also  be  rubbed,  but  in  a  different 
manner.  For  this  purpose  a  cotton  or  woollen  rag 
is  used,  or  a  piece  of  felt.  This  is  dipped  into  finely- 
powdered  pumice-stone,  and  the  rubbing  is  done  lightly 
backwards  and  forwards  with  the  grain  of  the  wood. 
The  most  convenient  plan  is  to  keep  the  powdered 
pumice-stone  in  a  small  can  or  saucer  with  water  added, 
and  to  pass  the  hand  over  the  work  during  its  progress, 


116 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


to  ascertain  whether  the  surface  is  perfectly  smootL 
Finally,  the  surface  is  thoroughly  cleaned  off  with 
sponge  and  water,  and  then  well  rubbed  down  with 
a  chamois  leather. 

Some  classes  of  work  need  the  final  coats  of  varnish 
to  be  polished.  This  is  done  as  follows  ; — Take  a  little 
powdered  rotten-stone  on  a  damp  rag,  and  rub  the  work 
lightly  with  the  palm  of  the  hand  backwards  and  for¬ 
wards,  adding  a  little  water  if  necessary,  continuing  the 
rubbing  until  the  surface  is  quite  dry.  The  varnish  will 
present  a  very  lustrous  appearance,  and  then  the  work 
may  be  cleaned  off  with  petroleum.  Drop  ivory  black 
may  be  used  with  advantage  instead  of  rotten-stone. 
The  work  is  often  polished  with  the  following  wash 
or  its  equivalent :  raw  linseed  oil  1  qt.,  vinegar  1  pt., 
alcohol  1  pt.,  liquor  ammonia  ^  pt. 

Spirit  varnishes  are  the  only  ones  which  properly 
admit  of  being  coloured.  Often  the  resins  themselves 
will  give  the  varnish  a  natural  tint  of  yellow,  brown,  or 
red  ;  in  fact,  pure  colourless  resin  varnishes  are  only 
obtainable  by  carefully  selecting  the  materials  for  solu¬ 
tions,  or  by  subjecting  them  to  preliminary  bleaching. 
Of  the  resins  which  are  most  frequently  used  to 
colour  varnishes,  dragon’s  blood  and  gamboge  are  the 
principal.  Dyewood  extracts  also  play  a  considerable 
part  in  the  colouring  of  varnishes,  and  aniline  dyes  are 
still  more  largely  used.  When  shellac  varnishes  are 
intended  to  be  coloured  with  aniline,  bleached  lac  only 
should  be  employed.  The  aniline  colour  dissolved  in 
alcohol  is  added  to  the  varnish  after  the  latter  has  been 
preparedi  and  the  product  should  be  warmed  if  necessary 
to  expel  any  excess  of  alcohol  introduced  with  the  aniline. 
Picric  acid  gives  a  beautiful  yellow  colour,  which  may 
be  turned  into  a  fine  green  by  the  addition  of  iodine 
green.  The  two  colouring  materials  in  this  case  should 
be  added  as  separate  solutions.  A  good  blue  colour  may 
be  obtained  with  prussiate  of  iron  free  from  alumina 
and  a  green  with  acetate  of  copper.  A  mixture  of 
prussiate  of  iron  with  gamboge  gives  several  good  shades 


PEOCESSES  OF  VARNISHING  WOOD.  117 


of  green,  and  with  carmine  or  dragon’s  blood  a  violet. 
Coloured  varnishes  should  be  applied  very  quickly,  in 
order  to  give  a  uniform  tint.  For  application  to  polished 
surfaces,  such  as  glass,  wood,  china,  or  metal,  the  ad¬ 
dition  of  i  per  cent,  of  borax  is  an  advantage. 

Where  varnishes  and  lacquers  are  required  to  be 
made  by  the  aid  of  heat,  or  where  large  quantities  are 
wanted,  special  plant  and  arrangements  are  necessary, 
but  these  cannot  be  treated  of  here.  The  following 
remarks  apply  to  those  varnishes  and  lacquers  which  can 
be  made  without  the  aid  of  heat,  and  where  the  quan¬ 
tity  to  be  made  at  a  time  does  not  exceed  the  require¬ 
ments  of  a  moderate  consumption.  In  making  varnishes 
and  lacquers  of  all  kinds,  care  should  be  taken  in  every 
case  to  see  that  the  spirit  is  of  full  strength,  the  resins 
free  from  moisture  and  all  foreign  matter ;  and  where 
the  finer  sorts  of  varnishes  are  to  be  made,  to  see,  also, 
that  the  resins  are  all  picked.  The  resins  should  be 
small  and,  if  possible,  coarsely  powdered,  as  large 
pieces  take  a  long  time  to  dissolve ;  while  small  pieces 
or  powder  get  into  a  cohesive  mass,  in  which  state  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  effect  solution. 

To  effect  speedy  solution  of  the  resins  various  plans 
are  resorted  to,  such  as  constant  agitation,  with  occa¬ 
sional  immersion  in  hot  water  when  the  varnish  or 
lacquer  is  being  made  in  small  quantity  in  a  glass  bottle, 
or  by  rolling  jars  or  tins  when  the  varnish  is  being  made 
in  quantities  of  two  or  three  gallons,  or  by  using  casks 
turned  by  mechanical  means  where  the  required  quan¬ 
tity  is  larger  still.  It  may  be  convenient  in  the  case  of 
turpentine  varnishes,  which  do  not  evaporate  so  quickly, 
to  make  them  in  vfide-mouthed  jars,  and  simply  stir 
them  frequently  with  a  stick.  If  the  stirring  rod  in  this 
case  is  provided  with  cross-bars  like  the  prongs  of  a 
dinner  fork,  the  mass  is  more  effectively  broken  up, 
and  solution  consequently  hastened.  It  is  almost  un¬ 
necessary  to  say  that  the  utmost  care  and  clean¬ 
liness  should  be  exercised  in  the  making  of  varnishes, 
as  the  least  dust  of  p^oisture  will  affect  their  quality. 


118 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


It  may  be  difficult  to  get  methylated  spirit  of  a 
strength  ranging  from  90  to  95  per  cent.,  and  pure  alcohol 
is  very  expensive,  so  it  may  be  well  here  to  point  out 
a  ready  plan  for  rectifying  commercial  methylated  spirit 
in  small  quantity.  Take  a  large  bladder,  which  has  been 
thoroughly  freed  from  all  fatty  tissue  both  internally 
.and  externally,  and  fill  it  with  methylated  spirit  60  over 
proof,  and  hang  it  in  a  warm  place.  The  water  will 
ooze  through  the  bladder  and  the  spirit  left  inside 
will  be  correspondingly  strengthened. 

The  cause  of  a  newly  oil-varnished  surface  turning  a 
slate  colour  is  due  to  what  is  known  as  blooming,  going 
cloudy,  smoky  or  foggy.  This  bloom  is  very  much  like 
that  on  a  plum  or  peach.  It  is  caused  by  an  absorption 
of  moisture  from  the  surrounding  air,  and  sudden  climatic 
changes  from  fine  to  wet ;  also  smoke  and  sulphurous 
fumes,  which  act  peculiarly  on  the  extreme  sensitive 
nature  of  all  high-grade  varnishes.  The  clouding  may 
sometimes  be  removed  by  rubbing  the  dry  varnish  with 
a  mixture  of  oil  and  vinegar,  afterwards  wiping  the 
surface  thoroughly  dry.  When  the  bloom  is  of  recent 
origin,  a  thorough  washing  and  drying  off  with  chamois 
leather  will  generally  be  found  to  restore  the  lustre  of 
tlie  varnish. 

If  this  treatment  docs  not  answer,  the  only  effectual 
remedy  is  to  rub  with  pumice-powder  and  water,  using 
a  pad  of  felt  or  cloth,  and  then  re-varnisli  in  a 
]ierfectly  dry  warm  atmosphere,  in  which  the  vehicle 
should  remain  until  quite  dry. 

To  prevent  such  troubles  as  blooming  and  flatting, 
the  under  coats  should  be  allowed  to  dry  right  through, 
and  foul  air  must  be  avoided  and  draughts  prevented  in 
the  room  w’here  the  varnishing  is  being  done.  Cracks 
in  the  first  coat  of  varnish  on  marbled  papers,  and  on 
grained  work,  are  due  to  the  different  nature  of  the  two 
grounds.  In  newly  grained  woodwork,  cracks  may 
occur  if  the  under  coat  is  not  hard  enough  ;  or  unequal 
contraction  may  be  the  cause.  The  remedy  is  a  fresh 
coat  of  varnish,  when  the  cracks  ^Yill  disappear.  Other 


PEOCESSES  OP  VARNISHING  WOOD.  119 


causes  than  those  above  mentioned  are  smoke  fumes, 
change  of  temperature,  and  moist  atmosphere ;  the 
remedy  lis  to  rub  down  the  work  and  give  it  another 
coat. 

Pitting  is  caused  by  uneven  temperature  during 
drying,  or  by  ammonia  fumes  ;  also  by  mixing  varnish 
of  different  grades,  or  by  varnishing  over  a  “  sweaty  ” 
or  still  moist  surface.  Pitting  may  be  prevented  by 
allowing  the  varnish  to  stand  for  a  couple  of  hours 
before  using  it,  by  damping  down  the  surface  with  a 
chamois  leather,  and  by  obtaining  as  far  as  possible  an 
even  temperature  when  varnishing. 

Dulling  or  blooming  sometimes  can  be  remedied  by 
the  use  of  gelatine.  This  is  insoluble  in  spirit,  and  a 
thin  sheet  of  gelatine  cut  in  strips  and  put  in  the  varnish 
will  absorb  the  water  and  make  the  varnish  as  good  as 
ever,  so  that  it  can  be  used  clear  and  bright  to  the  last 
drop.  When  the  strips  of  gelatine  become  quite  soft, 
through  absorbing  the  moisture,  they  may  be  taken  out 
and  dried,  and  are  then  ready  for  use  again. 

The  cause  of  varnish  not  drying  may  be  that  the 
varnish  bottle  was  left  uncorked  for  an  unreasonable 
length  of  time  before  application  ;  or  the  work  may  have 
been  washed  down  with  soap  instead  of  soda  ;  or  the 
varnish  may  have  been  applied  with  a  dirty  or  greasy 
brush.  If  the  defect  can  be  traced  to  either  of  these 
causes,  it  would  be  advisable  to  remove  some  of  the  var¬ 
nish  by  soaking  it  wdth  turps,  benzoline,  liquid  ammonia, 
or  methylated  spirit,  used  separately  or  mixed,  as  the 
varnish  may  require,  using  a  piece  of  coarse  rag  or 
canvas  as  a  rubber. 

A  similar  difficulty  with  varnish  has  been  over¬ 
come  by  covering  the  sticky  surface  with  one  or  more 
coats  of  good  spirit  varnish  ;  and  it  will  sometimes 
suffice  Ao  apply  a  coat  of  terebene  and  then  another 
of  varnish,  the  drying  qualities  of  which  have  been 
previously  tested,  but  these  are  not  workmanlike 
methods. 

Varnish  will  not  dry  if  it  is  laid  on  wet  wood,  nor  on 


120 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


wood  that  has  been  coated  with  glue  size,  or  with  oil 
(perliajis  a  slow-drying  oil)  that  was  not  thoroughly  dry 
when  the  varnish  was  applied.  Poor  quality  varnish  will 
not  dry,  sometimes.  Any  such  expedient  as  laying  a 
fresh  coat  ot  hard-dryiug  varnish  over  the  present  work 
is  strongly  deprecated.  If  the  varnish  does  not  lie  flat, 
but  hangs  in  drops,  the  workmanship  was  bad,  and  this, 
of  course,  cannot  be  amended.  The  only  remedy  for 
had  workmanship  is  the  entire  removal  of  the  imperfect 
varnish. 

Several  preparations  for  removing  varnish  are  obtain¬ 
able,  and  some  are  described  in  these  pages.  When  the 
old  varnish  has  been  thoroughly  cleaned  off,  allow  the 
work  to  stand  awhile  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  the 
surface  of  the  wood  continues  to  present  a  clean  dry 
face.  When  the  wood  is  fit,  apply  one  or  more  coats  of 
good  and  reliable  varnish  that  is  specially  prepared  for 
outdoor  work.  Should  the  wood  have  a  coarse,  open 
grain  the  pores  may  be  stojiped  with  a  grain-filler  before 
the  varnish  is  applied. 

Seats  in  a  public  building  require  careful  treatment, 
and  it  is  the  best  and  cheapest  policy  to  use  only  the 
best  of  materials.  In  a  bad  case  of  unsatisfactory  var¬ 
nishing  it  may  be  necessary  to  begin  again  from  the 
bare  wood,  but  if  the  seats  are  of  a  uniform  colour,  it 
may  not  be  necessary  to  remove  the  old  varnish.  They 
should  be  cleansed  by  well  washing  with  water  in  which 
common  washing  soda  has  been  dissolved  ;  a  teacupful 
to  1  gal.  will  be  ample.  If  powdered  pumice  or  bath 
brick  is  at  hand,  it  will  be  found  of  great  assistance  in 
removing  dirt,  etc.,  and  also  will  leave  the  surface  quite 
dull,  which  will  be  a  decided  advantage.  When  the  seats 
are  quite  dry,  they  should  be  varnished  with  a  good 
hard-drying  oil  varnish  as  used  by  painters,  decorators 
and  coach  builders.  Copal,  church  oak,  carriage  varnish, 
and  inside  oak  are  suggested  as  being  suitable  brands. 
These  varnishes  are  longer  in  drying  than  spirit  varnish, 
and  must  be  applied  with  a  perfectly  clean  bristle  brush. 
If  the  polish  and  spirit  varnish  now  on  is  fairly  sound. 


PROCESSES  OF  VARNISHING  WOOD.  121 


it  should  form  a  foundation  on  which  one  coat  of  oil 
varnisli  will  give  a  capital  result.  If,  however,  a  second, 
application  is  necessary,  sufficient  time  sliouid  be 
allowed  for  the  first  coat  to  harden,  and  if  the  surface  is 
dulled  by  rubbing  with  pumice-powder  and  clean  water 
free  from  soda,  a  superior  finish  will  be  assured.  If  the 
old  varnish  is  entirely  removed  by  means  of  some 
strong  hot  soda  water  in  which  a  lump  of  builder’s  lime 
is  also  dissolved,  a  roughness  of  grain  wili  result,  and 
the  wood  will  be  much  darker  in  colour.  The  latter  can 
be  restored  by  brushing  over  with  a  solution  of  oxalic 
acid — 1  oz.  dissolved  in  1  qt.  of  water.  This  must  be 
afterwards  swilled  off  with  plenty  of  water,  and  the 
work  brushed  over  with  common  malt  vinegar  to  kill 
any  trace  of  acid  that  may  lurk  in  the  grain  or  crevices. 
When  perfectly  dry,  the  wood  after  this  treatment  will 
assume  a  rich  colour  if  it  is  wiped  over  with  equal  parts 
of  linseed  oil  and  turps,  any  apparent  roughness  being 
cut  down  by  means  of  glass-paper.  If  the  old  varnish 
lias  been  removed  and  the  colour  restored  by  the  above 
method,  it  will  be  advisable  to  dry  up  the  oil  and  form 
a  foundation  for  the  oil  varnish  by  giving  a  rubber  of 
French  polish  or  by  applying  a  coat  of  shellac  varnish. 

Sticky  varnish  is  a  great  defect,  and  should  be 
removed  by  the  following  preparation.  Mix  thoroughly 
equal  parts  of  spirits  of  turpentine  and  spirits  of  wine, 
adding  a  little  carbonate  of  potash  to  unite  the  liquids. 
Pour  a  small  quantity  on  a  piece  of  felt  or  flannel,  and 
rub  briskly  until  the  varnish  is  all  removed.  Then 
sponge  down  w’ell  with  soap  and  water.  Before  re¬ 
varnishing  the  work,  allow  it  ample  time  to  dry.  Then 
apply  a  coat  of  glue  size,  which  should  also  be  allowed 
to  dry.  The  work  is  then  ready  for  varnishing. 
Interior  fixtures  should  be  given  two  coats  of  hard 
church  oak  varnish,  or  a  varnish  made  by  mixing  1  part 
gold-size  with.  7  parts  of  inside  oak  varnish,  but  for 
exterior  use  a  more  durable  varnish  will  be  required. 
Carriage  or  copal  varnish  will  be  most  suitable,  and 
sliouid  be  mixed  with  about  1  part  gold-size  to  7  parts 


122 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


varnish.  This  will  give  to  it  good  drying  properties, 
and  prevent  stickiness.  The  above  proportion  of  gold 
size  should  not  be  exceeded,  or  otherwise  the  work  will 
be  liable  to  crack.  Another  essential  feature  of  succes.s- 
ful  varnishing  is  to  apply  it  in  a  warm  atmosphere,  free 
from  damp. 


123 


CHAPTER  XIL 

VAENISHES. 

Oil  and  spirit  varnishes  have  their  respective  advan¬ 
tages  and  disadvantages.  In  spirit  varnish,  says  an 
authoritative  writer  in  the  American  “  Bulletin  of  Phar¬ 
macy,”  the  solvent  is  alcohol,  and  the  hard  and  the  elas¬ 
tic  gums  must  be  mixed  to  ensure  elasticity  and  solidity, 
as  the  alcohol  evaporates  at  once  after  applying,  leaving 
the  varnish  wholly  dependent  on  the  gum  for  the 
tenacious  and  adhesive  properties  ;  and  if  the  soft  resin 
predominates  the  varnish  will  remain  tacky  for  a  long 
time.  Spirit  varnish,  however  good  and  convenient  to 
work  with,  must  always  be  inferior  to  oil  varnish,  as  the 
latter  is  at  the  same  time  more  elastic  and  more  solid, 
for  the  oil  in  oxidising  and  evaporating  thickens  and 
forms  resin,  which  continues  its  softening  and  binding 
influence,  whereas  in  a  spirit  varnish  the  alcohol  is 
promptly  dissipated,  and  leaves  the  gums  on  the  surface 
of  the  work  in  a  more  or  less  granular  and  brittle  con¬ 
dition,  and  they  readily  chip  and  peel  off.  Varnish 
must  be  elastic  ;  it  must  yield  to  the  movements  of  the 
wood  in  expanding  or  contracting  with  heat  or  cold,  and 
must  not  enclose  the  wood  like  a  sheet  of  glass.  This 
is  why  oil  varnish  is  superior  to  spirit  varnish.  To 
obtain  this  suppleness  the  gums  must  be  dissolved  in 
some  liquid  not  highly  volatile  like  spirit,  but  one  which 
mixes  with  them  and  so  counteracts  their  extreme 
friability.  Such  solvents  are  the  oils  of  lavender,  spike, 
rosemary,  and  turpentine,  combined  with  linseed  oil. 
The  vehicle  in  which  the  resins  are  dissolved  must  be 
soft  and  must  remain  so,  thus  softening  the  resins 
which  are  of  themselves  naturally  hard.  Any  varnish 
from  which  the  solvent  has  completely  dried  out  must 


124 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


necessarily  become  hard  and  glassy,  and  chip  off.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  it'  the  varnish  remains  too  soft  and 
tacky,  it  will  cake  in  time  and  destroy  the  effect 
desired. 

Spirit  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as  follow  : 
— (a)  Alcohol  and  sandarach ;  (b)  alcohol  and  mastic  : 
(c)  alcohol  and  copal ;  (d)  alcohol  and  amber  ;  (e)  alcohol 
and  shellac  ;  (/)  alcohol  and  mixed  resins. 

These  varnishes  are  very  quick-drying,  only  less 
80  than  ether  varnishes.  They  may  be  made  to  vary 
greatly  in  quality  by  the  addition  of  essential  oils, 
and  are  mostly  colourless  or  only  very  slightly  coloured. 
The  addition  of  essential  oils  renders  the  varnishes 
more  durable  and  elastic  and  less  liable  to  crack 
through  exposure  to  the  air.  These  varnishes  are 
largely  employed  in  the  bookbinding,  leather  and 
paper  trades,  and  for  certain  kinds  of  metal-work, 
as  well  as  for  wood  varnishes.  In  addition  to  sand¬ 
arach,  mastic,  copal,  amber,  and  shellac,  other  resins 
such  as  anime,  elemi,  benzoin,  gamboge,  and  dragon’s 
blood  are  frequently  used  in  the  preparation  of  these 
varnishes,  the  two  latter  specially  as  colourants,  and 
camphor  also  is  frequently  incorporated. 

Varnishes  composed  of  spirit  and  shellac  are  among 
the  oldest.  Their  natural  red  and  yellow  tints  caused 
these  preparations  to  become  popular  with  furniture 
makers,  and  the  introduction  of  bleached  shellac 
completed  the  requirements  of  the  trade  by  supply¬ 
ing  a  colourless  preparation.  Though  shellac  cannot 
be  altogether  dissolved  in  the  spirits  employed,  yet  a 
perfectly  clear  solution  may  generally  be  obtained  by 
adding  a  little  powdered  lime  and  allowing  it  to 
settle.  It  then  separates  into  two  layers,  the  upper 
one  (about  three-fourths  of  the  whole)  being  perfectly 
clear,  and  of  the  cloudy  residue  a  part  may  also  be 
rendered  fit  for  use  by  filtration  A  little  petroleum 
or  benzine  may  be  used  for  clearing  the  solution,  but 
in  that  case  the  cloudy  layer  rises  to  the  surface,  and 
none  of  it  is  recoverable  by  filtration. 


YAENISHES. 


126 


Shellac  may  be  dissolved  with  borax  if  3  parts  of 
shellac  and  1  of  borax  are  added  to  25  parts  of  water, 
and  the  whole  is  moderately  heated.  The  solution 
thus  obtained  is  in  itself  an  excellent  varnish.  It 
may  be  incorporated  with  oil  colours  by  rubbing  out 
these-  with  a  little  oil,  and  then  mixing  with  the 
varnish.  The  mixture  dries  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  and  should  be  prepared  only  as  required. 

Brown  spirit  varnish  is  made  of  shellac,  2  lbs.]  gum 
sandarach,  |  lb. ;  methylated  spirit  (60  over-proof), 

1  gal.  Shake  until  the  gums  are  dissolved,  and  add 
warmed  Venice  turpentine,  J  lb.  Shake  until  thoroughly 
mixed,  and  afterwards  strain.  It  should  be  kept  for 
a  week  or  ten  days  previous  to  use. 

Another  spirit  varnish  is  made  of  4  ozs.  shellac ; 

2  ozs.  resin  ]  ^  oz.  gum  benzoin ;  J  oz.  gum  thus  ;  1  pt. 
methylated  spirits.  Crush  the  gums,  pour  in  the  spirits, 
and  set  aside  in  a  warm  place,  frequently  shaking  the 
bottle.  Carefully  strain  before  using,  and  apply  with  a 
camel-hair  brush. 

White  furniture  varnish  is  made  of  bleached  shellac, 
powdered,  2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  shellac  in 
about  two-thirds  of  the  spirit,  filter,  then  add  first  one- 
third  of  the  remaining  spirit,  and  afterwards  dilute  with 
the  remainder.  A  reddish  varnish  may  be  made  in  the 
same  manner  by  using  orange  instead  of  bleached  lac, 
and  a  still  darker  one  by  the  use  of  a  very  dark  lac,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  extract  of  sandal-wood. 

Black  varnish  is  made  of  thin  orange  shellac,  8  ozs. ; 
spirit,  1  pint ;  Venice  turpentine  (previously  liquefied), 
I  oz.  Dissolve  on  water-bath,  then  add  about  J  oz. 
lamp-black. 

Dark  varnish  is  made  of  thin  orange  shellac,  3  ozs. ; 
Venice  turpentine,  I-  oz. ;  spirit,  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  lae 
and  turpentine  in  the  alcohol  on  the  water-batk 

The  best  white  hard  spirit  varnish  is  made  of  fine 
picked  gum  eandarach,  2  lbs.  Dissolve  in  methylated 
spirit,  1  gal.  Strain  and  add  finest  pale  turpentine 
varnish,  1  lb.  Another  dearer  kind  is  made  of  gum 


126 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


mastic,  2^  lbs.  ;  stronger  spirit,  1  gal.  Dissolve,  and  add 
1  lb.  finest  pale  turpentine  varnish. 

Ether  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as  follows  : 
— (a)  With  pure  ether  basis  ;  (6)  with  mixed  basis ; 
(c)  with  resin,  chloroform,  and  benzine  basis.  These 
varnishes  are  generally  of  an  exceedingly  fluid  character. 
They  dry  quickly,  but  they  are  not  durable,  and  their 
application  is  therefore  limited  to  objects  which  are 
not  exposed  to  frequent  cleaning  or  rubbing.  The 
volatility  of  the  solvents  renders  it  necessary  to  keep 
ether  varnishes  in  vessels  very  carefully  closed.  It  is 
an  advantage  to  give  the  articles  to  which  these 
varnishes  are  to  be  applied  a  preliminary  rubbing  with 
oil  of  lavender  or  rosemary,  after  which  they  should  be 
allowed  to  dry  well  before  varnishing.  The  following  is 
a  recipe  for  an  ether  varnish. 

Take  of  finely  powdered  copal,  3^  ozs.;  ether  (sp. 
gr.  0'725),  1  pt.  Dissolve  the  copal  in  the  ether  in  a 
stoppered  bottle,  constantly  shaking ;  if  the  copal  is 
not  entirely  dissolved  add  a  little  more  ether.  Allow 
the  solution  to  stand  and  settle,  then  decant  into  another 
bottle,  and  keep  carefully  stoppered. 

A  more  quickly-drying  varnish,  specially  suitable 
for  small  wooden  articles,  maps,  etc.,  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  as  explained  above  : — Finely  powdered  soft 
dammar,  5  ozs.  ;  in  ether  (sp.  gr.  0'725),  1  pt. 

A  good  varnish  having  a  mixed  ether  solvent  is 
made  as  follows : — Powdered  mastic,  sandarach,  and 
glass,  of  each  2  ozs. ;  ether  (sp.  gr.  0'725),  \  pint ;  alcohol, 
^  pint ;  lavender  oil,  2  ozs.  Mix  the  alcohol  and  the 
ether,  and  then  add  the  resins  and  glass ;  shake  in 
stoppered  bottle,  allow  to  settle,  and  decant.  The 
lavender  to  be  added  afterwards. 

Another  method  of  making  ether  varnishes  is  as 
follows  : — Select  the  palest  lumps  of  copal  gum,  crush 
them  into  small  pieces  and  tie  in  a  bag  of  fine  muslin. 
Suspend  this  in  a  bottle  of  sulphuric  ether,  and  the  copal 
gum  will  gradually  ooze  out  into  the  ether.  When  the 
gum  has  been  digested,  let  the  bag  drain  and  then  be  put 


VAENISHES. 


127 


into  another  bottle  of  ether,  which  will  dissolve  all  the 
available  gum.  Plenty  of  the  gum  should  be  used,  so 
that  the  liquid  will  form  a  thick  varnish.  To  make  the 
varnish  dry  more  slowly,  and  render  it  more  elastic  add 
any  slow-drying  essential  oil,  as  oil  of  caraway,  oil  of 
anise,  poppy,  or  sweet  almonds  ;  these  oils  are  colourless 
in  small  quantities.  Should  it  dry  too  slowly,  add  more 
ether  and  mix  thoroughly. 

Varnish  for  gilded  wood  is  made  of  sandarach, 
1|  oz.;  mastic  in  tears,  IJ  oz.  ;  elemi,  1  oz.;  spirit,  1  pt. 
The  powdered  resins  are  placed  in  a  still  with  the 
alcohol  and  boiled  for  two  hours.  The  product  of  dis¬ 
tillation,  about  I-  pt,  is  collected.  One  third  of  this  is 
replaced  in  the  still  and  boiled  for  two  hours  more,  after 
this  the  remaining  two-thirds  are  placed  in  tha  still 
and  similarly  treated.  The  varnish  thus  obtained  is 
very  useful  for  protecting  gilding,  and  allows  the  articles 
treated  with  it  to  be  washed  without  injurious  effect. 
The  following  are  some  useful  formul®  of  other  varnishes 
for  the  same  purpose  made  of  powdered  resins,  dissolved 
in  alcohol  heated  on  a  water-bath,  turpentine  being  added 
if  necessary ; — (1)  Mastic  in  tears,  3  ozs. ;  sandarach 
2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt.  (2)  Mastic  in  tears,  1 J  ozs. ;  sanda- 
rach,  li  oz. ;  shellac,  1  oz. ;  colophony,  1  oz, ;  spirit,  1  pt. 
A  very  hard  and  slow-drying  varnish  is  made  of : 
Mastic  in  tears,  2  ozs. ;  sandarach,  2  ozs. ;  copal,  1  oz. ; 
spirit,  1  pt. ;  spike  oil,  IJ  oz.  All  these  ingredients 
may  be  more  or  less  varied.  The  varnishes  may 
be  perfumed  with  a  few  drops  of  any  aromatic 
balsam. 

Amber  varnishes  are  usually  prepared  by  first  fusing 
the  amber,  then  adding  the  other  resins,  next  pouring 
the  clarified  linseed  oil  on  the  dissolved  mass,  and  then 
diluting  it  with  turpentine.  Another  way  is  to  allow 
the  ambw  to  cool  after  dissolving  and  to  repow^der  it 
and  dissolve  in  the  water-bath,  together  with  the  other 
resins  in  the  oils.  By  exposing  amber  varnish  to  the 
sunlight  the  quality  is  improved. 

Sandarach  varnish  is  used  for  articles  subject  to  fric- 


128 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


tion  and  hard  use,  and  may  be  applied  to  wood  and  even 
metals.  The  following  formulae  will  be  found  useful ; — 
(1)  Gum  sandarach,  8  ozs.;  pounded  mastic,  2  ozs.;  alcohol, 

1  qt. ;  turpentine,  4  ozs. ;  pounded  glass,  4  ozs.  Mix  and 
dissolve  with  frequent  agitation.  (2)  Pounded  copal  of 
an  amber  colour  once  liquefied,  3  oz. ;  gum  sandarach, 
6  ozs.;  mastic  cleaned,  3  ozs. ;  clear  turpentine,  2J  ozs.  ; 
pounded  glass,  4  ozs. ;  pure  alcohol,  1  qt.  Mix  and 
dissolve  with  frequent  agitation. 

Bright  varnish  for  toys  and  small  wooden  articles  is 
made  as  follows  : — Sandarach,  3  ozs.  ;  copal,  1^  oz. ; 
mastic,  1^  oz. ;  best  turpentine,  ^  pt. ;  powdered  glass, 

2  ozs.  ;  spirit,  I  pt.  Dissolve  on  water-bath.  A  more 
durable  bright  varnish,  for  articles  which  have  to  stand 
wear,  is  prepared  by  dissolving  on  a  water-bath  : — Picked 
sandarach,  4^  ozs. ;  mastic  in  tears,  1  oz. ;  powdered  glass, 
2  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pint.  The  varnish  may  be  rendered  more 
fluid  by  the  addition  of  8  ozs.  of  liquid  Venice  turpentine, 
after  which  it  should  be  filtered.  A  very  bright  and 
quickly-drying  varnish  is  made  of  sandarach,  1|  oz. ; 
mastic  in  tears.  If  oz.  ;  copal,  1  oz.  ;  oil  of  lavender, 
I  oz. ;  spirit,  I  pt.  Slightly  damp  the  copal  with  oil 
of  lavender  and  melt  it  in  a  well-glazed  vessel  on  a  slow 
fire,  then  run  on  a  cold  marble  slab  and  powder.  Add 
this  powder  to  the  powdered  sandarach  and  mastic  and 
dissolve  on  a  water-bath  in  the  alcohol.  After  solution 
add  the  lavender  oil  under  stirring. 

Perfumed  varnishes  are  sometimes  used,  especially  for 
imitation  Chinese  and  Oriental  articles.  The  following 
are  formulae  for  such  preparations  : — Dissolve  on  the 
water-bath  powdered  I  lb.  sticklac,  J  lb.  of  picked 
benzoin,  i  lb.  of  storax,  and  ^  lb.  of  sandarach  in  5  pts. 
of  spirit.  Or  prepare  in  the  same  way  : — Shellac,  9  ozs. ; 
mastic  in  tears,  4^  ozs. ;  picked  benzoin,  2^  ozs. ;  san¬ 
darach,  4^  ozs.  ;  elemi,  ^  oz.  ;  myrrh,  ^  oz. ;  amber,  ^  oz. ; 
with  3  pts.  of  spirit ;  and  afterwards  add,  undet  stirring, 
4  oz.  of  copaiba  balsam,  and  filter. 

Sealing-wax  varnish  for  coating  corks,  etc.,  is  made  of 
good  red  sealing-wax,  3  lbs. ;  shellac,  1  Ib.  Dissolve  by 


VAENISHES. 


129 


agitation  in  1  gal.  methylated  spirit.  Black  varnish  may 
be  made  in  the  same  way,  and  using  the  same  pro¬ 
portions,  substituting  black  for  red  sealing-wax. 

Colourless  varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  with  gentle 
heat  8  oz.  gum  sandarach  and  2  oz.  Venice  turpentine 
in  32  oz.  alcohol.  A  harder  varnish  of  a  reddish  tint  is 
made  by  using  5  oz.  shellac  and  1  oz.  Venice  turpentine 
dissolved  in  32  oz.  alcohol. 

White  varnish  for  maps,  etc.,  is  made  of  Canada 
balsam  dissolved  with  a  little  less  Venice  turpentine 
and  then  strained. 

Clear  varnishes  are  made  as  follows,  the  parts 
being  taken  by  weight  : — (1)  Linseed  oil,  50  parts ; 
white  lead,  2  parts ;  litharge,  2  parts ;  umber,  1  part. 
Add  a  little  vermilion.  (2)  Linseed  oil,  100  parts ; 
water,  50  parts  ;  litharge,  10  parts ;  neutral  acetate 
of  lead,  1  part.  Boil  six  or  seven  hours. 

Essential  oil  varnishes  are  classified  into  groups  as 
follows  : — (a)  Turpentine  and  mastic  ;  (b)  turpentine 
and  sandarach ;  (c)  turpentine  and  copal ;  (d)  turpen¬ 
tine  and  dammar  ;  (e)  turpentine  and  various  resins 
or  mordants ;  (/)  mixed  essential  oils  and  resin. 
These  differ  in  many  important  particulars  from  other 
classes  of  varnishes.  The  solvent  does  not  entirely 
disappear  during  the  drying  processes  of  the  varnish, 
but  becomes  incorporated  in  the  hard  surface  layer. 
In  practice  the  only  essential  oils  used  are  turpentine, 
lavender,  and  rosemary,  the  two  latter  only  in  a  minor 
degree.  Turpentine  to  be  used  in  varnish-making 
should  always  be  well  rectified  and  absolutely  colour¬ 
less.  The  boiling  point  of  the  oil  is  160°  C.,  so  the 
manufacture  of  varnishes  in  which  it  forms  an  in¬ 
gredient  cannot  be  carried  on  at  a  very  high  tempera¬ 
ture.  Essential  oil  varnishes  are  notable  for  their 
fluidity,  their  brilliancy,  and  the  quickness  with  which 
they  dry.  Turpentine  is  by  far  the  best  vehicle  for 
dissolving  resins.  The  incorporation  of  a  fatty  oil 
into  a  turpentine  varnish  causes  it  to  dry  more  slowly, 
while  it  increases  the  hardness.  Varnishes  made  with 


I 


130 


WOOi)  FINISHING. 


essential  oil  only  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  indoor 
work  in  lionse-painting,  and  for  coating  articles  not 
exposed  to  the  open  air,  or  which  do  not  require 
much  handling  or  cleaning.  Varnishes  made  with  a 
mixture  of  essential  and  fixed  oils  are  mostly  em¬ 
ployed  for  outdoor  work  or  other  purposes  where 
there  is  generally  much  wear  and  friction.  In  pre¬ 
paring  this  class  of  varnishes,  the  resins  may  be 
dissolved  in  cold  oil,  but,  as  this  is  a  slow  process, 
they  are  generally  dissolved  separately  under  the 
influence  of  heat,  and  should  be  allowed  to  cool. 
The  oil  is  then  added  slowly,  constantly  stirring. 
The  mixture  is  left  to  settle  and  then  filtered. 

Fat  varnishes  are  slower  in  drying  than  many 
others,  but  they  are  the  most  durable  and  hardest 
of  any.  They  are  almost  always  used  for  outdoor 
and  other  work  requiring  hard  wear.  In  fat  varnishes 
almost  all  resins  used  in  varnish-making  can  be  in¬ 
corporated,  but  copal  and  amber  are  those  generally 
used.  The  choice  of  the  oil  used  as  a  solvent  is  of 
prime  importance.  It  should  have  been  extracted 
from  properly-matured  seed,  cold-drawn  oil  being 
generally  better  than  that  obtained  by  heat.  It 
should  be  thoroughly  purified,  limpid,  of  a  pale 
colour,  and  free  from  pungent  odour.  It  is  an  ad¬ 
vantage  to  use  oil  which  has  had  time  to  settle 
properly,  and  has  been  carefully  drawn  from  the 
receptacles  in  which  it  was  stored. 

Fat  oil  varnishes  are  classified  in  groups  as  follows  ; 
— {a)  Fixed  oils  and  lead  or  zinc  salts ;  {b)  fixed  oils 
and  manganese  salts  ;  (c)  fixed  oils  and  acids  ;  {d)  fixed 
oils  and  copal  ;  (e)  fixed  oils  and  amber  ;  (/)  composite 
fixed  oil  varnishes. 

Linseed  oil  is  the  principal  fatty  oil  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  oil  varnishes.  Varnish  prepared 
with  it  as  the  base  should  be  as  clear  as  water,  of  a 
pale  straw  colour,  and  of  about  0'9575  sp.  gr.  It 
should,  in  drying,  produce  an  even,  colourless,  and 
translucent  coat.  To  cause  the  oil  to  dry  it  must  be 


VARNISHES. 


131 


treated  ■with  metallic  salts,  preferably  of  lead,  tin,  or 
zinc.  The  metals  are  usually  first  granulated,  zinc 
being  used  in  the  form  of  the  sulphate  of  commerce, 
and  should  be  calcined  before  use.  The  boiling  of  the 
metallic  salts  with  the  oil  is  done  in  a  copper  vessel  in 
the  proportion  of  31  parts  of  oil  to  1  each  of  tin  and 
lead,  and  is  continued  until  the  salts  are  completely 
dissolved.  The  boiler  is  then  taken  from  the  fire  and  2 
parts  of  calcined  and  powdered  zinc  are  added  under 
vigorous  stirring,  producing  effervescence.  When  this 
has  subsided  the  mixture  is  again  boiled  for  about  half 
an  hour,  until  bubbles  cease.  The  varnish  is  then  left  to 
settle,  and  after  twenty-four  hours  should  be  filtered 
through  cloth.  It  is  then  bottled  in  vessels  secured  by 
a  stopper  sealed  with  lead,  and  exposed  to  the  sun  for 
seven  or  eight  days  to  render  it  limpid.  Litharge, 
minium,  and  white  lead  are  also  often  used  as  oil  driers, 
either  combined  or  separately.  The  boiling  is  done  on  a 
naked  fire  or  on  the  water-bath.  Before  boiling,  a  volume 
of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  oil  should  be  added  to  it  to 
diminish  the  risk  of  taking  fire,  the  metallic  salts  should, 
in  this  case,  be  placed  in  a  copper-wire  receptacle  sus¬ 
pended  in  the  upper  layer  of  the  liquid.  The  ordinary 
water-bath  does  not  give  a  sufiiciently  high  temperature 
for  boiling  the  oil,  but  by  using  water  saturated  with 
sulphate  of  lime  its  boiling  point  may  be  raised.  Take 
by  weight :  Linseed  oil,  30  parts ;  water,  12  parts ; 
litharge,  3  parts  ;  white  lead,  2  parts  ;  umber,  1  part. 
Place  the  minerals  in  a  cloth  bag,  suspend  them  in  the 
oil,  and  boil  until  the  water  has  diminished  by  one- 
eighth  of  its  volume.  Or  take  linseed  oil,  100  parts  ; 
litharge,  9  parts ;  white  lead,  7  parts  ;  umber,  2  parts, 
Mix  the  litharge  with  the  oil,  then  add  the  umber  and 
white  lead  by  degrees  when  the  oil  begins  to  boil  Con¬ 
tinue  to  boil  for  three  or  four  hours. 

The  following  tests  for  ascertaining  the  purity  or 
otherwise  of  linseed  oil  have  been  collected.  (1)  Pure 
oil,  at  15°  C.  (69°  F.),  has  a  specific  gravity  ranging 
between  '935  and  '932.  Fish  oil  has  a  specific  gravity 


132 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


almost  the  same.  (2)  Pure  oil,  boiled  or  raw,  flashes 
at  244°  C.  (470°  F.).  Other  fatty  oils  flash  at  about 
the  same  temperature.  Resin  oil  flashes  at  between 
149°  and  165°  C.  (300°  and  330°  F.).  The  mineral 
oils  used  as  adulterants  flash  at  from  193°  to  215°  C. 
(380°  to  420°  F.).  (3)  When  equal  parts  of  linseed 

oil  and  nitric  acid  are  put  into  a  small  white  glass 
bottle  and  shaken  up,  the  mixture  will  appear,  after 
standing  for  fifteen  minutes  or  so,  when  the  oil  used 
is  pure  linseed,  as  an  upper  layer  of  muddy  olive- 
green  and  a  lower  one  almost  colourless ;  when  fish  oil 
is  present,  the  apper  layer  will  be  a  deep  red-brown  and 
the  lower  layer  a  deep  blood-red.  (4)  Shaken  up  with 
soda  and  then  having  some  warm  water  added,  if  any 
petroleum  is  present,  it  will  separate  from  the  emulsion. 
(5)  When  put  in  a  bottle  and  buried  in  a  mixture  of  ice 
and  salt,  cottonseed  oil  will  solidify  ;  pure  linseed  oil 
remains  liquid  till  17°  F.  is  reached. 

Varnish  for  musical  instruments  must  be  extremely 
pliable,  and  it  must  adhere  to  the  wood  without  cracking 
and  without  thickening  in  crevices,  thus  forming  an 
obstacle  to  the  proper  use  of  the  instrument.  For 
this  reason  shellac  and  oily  bodies  are  inadmissible. 
Varnishes  for  musical  instruments  are  generally  coloured 
red  or  yellow,  but  the  colouring  materials  should  not 
in  this  case  be  prepared  by  the  usual  mode  of  alcoholic 
solution,  but  by  distilling  the  varnish  on  a  water-bath  at 
a  temperature  of  about  100°  C.,  in  which  case  the  alcohol 
evaporates  (its  point  of  distillation  being  about  78°), 
while  the  essential  oil  remains  behind.  The  following 
are  suitable  recipes.  (1)  Sandarach,  1^  oz. ;  mastic 
in  tears,  2  ozs. ;  elemi,  ^  oz.  ;  turpentine,  ^  oz.  ;  castor 
oil,  ^  oz. ;  spirit,  1  oz.  (2)  Mastic  in  tears,  i  oz. ;  soft 
white  dammar,  i  oz.  ;  turpentine,  2  ozs. ;  raw  linseed 
oil,  j  oz.  Put  the  turpentine  in  a  broad-bottomed  bottle, 
with  a  small  quantity  of  powdered  glass,  and  add  the 
mastic.  Stir  frequently,  and  after  twenty-four  hours' 
add  the  dammar.  Leave  to  stand  for  another  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  then  add  the  linseed  oil  while  stirring. 


VAENISHES. 


133 


Let  the  mixture  stand  for  a  fortnight  in  strong  light ; 
then  filter  through  cotton.  This  varnish  improves  with 
age,  and  is  best  when  six  or  eight  months  old. 

Varnishes,  in  which  the  solvent  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  an  essential  oil  and  linseed  oil,  do  not  dry  so  quickly 
as  pure  turpentine  varnishes,  but  they  are  much  harder 
and  more  durable,  and  are  largely  used  for  outside  work 
by  carriage-builders,  etc.  Shellac,  by  reason  of  its 
insolubility  in  fixed  oil,  is  rarely  employed  in  these 
varnishes,  its  place  being  generally  taken  by  copal  or 
amber.  The  following  are  some  recipes  for  varnishes 
of  this  class  : — Varnish  for  distempering  paint. — Dissolve 
on  the  water-bath  with  a  little  turpentine :  Powdered 
mastic,  ^  oz. ;  powdered  white  olibanum,  1  oz.  Add 
to  the  mixture  while  hot :  Venice  turpentine,  1  oz. ; 
plain  oil  varnish,  ^  oz. ;  turpentine,  1  pt.  Carriage  varn¬ 
ish.  —  Hard  copal,  5  ozs. ;  plain  oil  varnish,  1  pt.  ; 
turpentine,  1  pt. 

Varnishes  which  consist  of  all  those  preparations 
which  include  beeswax,  and  Avhich  are  used  as  fur¬ 
niture  polishes,  are  fully  treated  upon  in  Chapter  VIII. 

To  refine  shellac  1^  lb.  of  soda  are  dissolved  in 
45  lbs.  of  water  in  a  suitable  boiler.  Add  to  this 
gradually  as  it  dissolves  5  lbs.  of  shellac.  This  forms 
a  solution  of  violet-red  colour,  with  more  or  less  trace 
of  fatty  substances.  After  complete  solution  the 
mixture  is  boiled  for  a  few  minutes,  and  the  boiler 
is  then  covered  with  a  wooden  top,  which  is  cemented 
down,  and  the  contents  of  the  boiler  are  cooled  slowly. 
When  cold,  the  grease  on  the  surface  of  the  solution 
is  skimmed  off,  and,  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid  added 
drop  by  drop,  the  shellac  is  precipitated,  and  well 
washed  with  water  until  all  acid  reaction  is  removed. 
The  shellac  is  then  put  into’'  boiling  water  and  softened, 
so  that  it  may  be  worked'  into  rods  or  plaits,  and  is 
hardened  by  transferring  it  to  cold  water  containing 
some  glycerine.  The  refined  shellac  should  have  a 
silver  to  a  yellowish-white  surface,  with  a  yellowish- 
brown  fracture.  It  should  be  perfectly  dry  and  entirely 


134 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


soluble  in  alcohol.  The  turbidity  of  alcoholic  solutions 
of  shellac  is  caused  by  a  fatty  substance  present  to  the 
extent  of  1  to  5  per  cent.  To  remove  this,  add  I  part  of 
powdered  chalk,  and  heat  to  112°  F.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  solution  clears  rapidly,  and  the  re¬ 
mainder  may  be  clarified  by  filtering  once. 

Spirit  and  copal  varnishes  should  be  prepared  with 
pieces  of  transparent  copal  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the 
same  tint.  Gum  copal,  although  difficult  of  solution  in 
lumps,  has  the  property  of  liquefying  when  reduced  to 
very  fine  powder  and  kept  exposed  to  a  current  of  air. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  copals,  but  for  general 
purposes  they  may  be  divided  into  hard,  half  hard, 
and  soft  copals.  The  preparation  of  copal  varnishes 
was  formerly  a  difficult  and  arduous  work,  no  easy 
process  being  known  for  completely  dissolving  the 
copal.  But  these  difficulties  have  been  overcome  by 
the  system  of  dissolving  it  on  the  water-bath,  at  a 
temperature  of  about  100°,  in  as  much  spirit  as  is 
required  to  give  the  necessary  fluidity  to  the  varnish, 
or  by  that  of  treating  both  the  resin  and  the  solvent 
in  a  closed  vessel  at  a  temperature  of  about  300°.  Half- 
soft  copal  contains  more  moisture  than  the  hard  resin, 
and  dissolves  quicker.  If  over  heated  it  may  turn 
black  and  be  spoilt  altogether.  Care  should  also  be 
taken  to  dilute  it  with  turpentine  as  soon  as  the  oil 
has  been  incorporated.  The  following  makes  a  useful 
varnish  ; — Half-soft  copal,  I:^  lb.  ;  boiled  linseed  oil,  i 
to  I  pt.,  turpentine,  1  gal. 

For  quick-drying  copal  varnish  the  following  are 
two  formulae: — (1)  Turpentine,  1  pt. ;  spirit,  |  pt. 
Mix,  and  whilst  slowly  stirring,  add  powdered  copal, 
4  ozs.  Dissolve  at  about  100°  on  the  water-bath,  leave 
to  settle,  and  decant.  (2)  Powdered  copal,  18  ozs. ; 
turpentine,  3  pts. ;  copaiba  balsam,  3  ozs. ;  spirit,  1  pt. 
Prepare  in  the  same  manner. 

Fat  copal  varnish  requires  a  good  deal  of  skill  in 
its  preparation,  especially  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
copal  solution,  which  is  easily  spoilt  by  insufficient  or 


VAENISHES. 


135 


excessive  heat.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
copal  of  the  same  colour  and  the  same  degree  of  hard¬ 
ness.  The  oil  should  be  added  to  the  copal  as  soon 
as  most  of  the  largest  pieces  have  dissolved.  Ex¬ 
ceptionally  hard  pieces  which  may  remain  undissolved 
should  be  taken  out  and  collected  to  make  a  special 
solution.  The  oil  before  being  poured  on  to  the  copal 
should  be  heated  to  about  the  same  temperature,  but 
it  must  not  be  added  in  a  boiling  state.  The  following 
proportions  are  usual ; — Hard  or  half-soft  copal,  1  part ; 
oil,  9  parts ;  turpentine,  slightly  over  2  parts.  The 
oil  should  be  added  slowly ;  to  incorporate  itself 
properly  with  the  copal,  it  should  be  between  120° 
and  150°.  If  too  hot,  effervescence  will  take  place,  if 
too  cold  it  will  form  a  cakey  varnish. 

Copal  varnishes  are  also  made  by  the  cold  process, 
but  the  solution  of  copal  in  essential  oil  generally  offers 
certain  difficulties,  especially  when  heat  is  used.  The 
following  process  seems  well  adapted  for  obtaining  copal 
varnish  without  the  use  of  heat  Reduce  the  copal  to 
powder  and  then  add  gradually  the  spike  oil  or  other 
essential  oil  solvent,  beating  up  the  two  vigorously  in  a 
mixer.  Gradually  the  copal  dissolves,  and  the  solution 
may  be  filtered.  If  turpentine  is  afterwards  added  to 
copal  dissolved  in  the  cold  way  in  spike  oil,  the  copal  is 
precipitated,  which  does  not  occur  if  solution  has  been 
effected  by  the  aid  of  heat.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of 
spike  oil  to  9  parts  of  turpentine  may  be  added  to  the 
copal  without  causing  precipitation,  and  will  jtroduce  a 
good  varnish.  By  mixing  powdered  copal  with  spike 
oil  and  then  mixing  linseed-oil  with  the  product,  a 
uniform  mixture  is  also  obtainable.  Dammar  resin  is 
rather  more  soluble  than  copal  in  essential  oil,  but  in 
using  this  or,  any  kind  of  soft  resin,  it  should  either  be 
dissolved  over  a  naked  fire  previous  to  being  mixed  with 
the  solvent,  or  the  latter  should  be  added  boiling.  This 
is  done  because  soft  resins  contain  a  considerable  pro¬ 
portion  of  water,  and,  unless  previously  dried,  are  apt 
to  spoil  the  varnish.  Take  powdered  dammar,  fib.,  and 


136 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


form  a  thick  solution  with  about  i  pt.  of  turpentine, 
put  the  mixture  on  the  fire  and  when  it  commences  to 
boil  remove  from  the  fire  and,  under  constant  stirring, 
add  i  to  i  pt.  of  turpentine,  bring  the  mixture  on  the 
fire  again  and  heat  to  boiling  point  ;  then  withdraw, 
allow  to  stand,  and  filter.  The  addition  of  about  ^  oz. 
of  camphor  will  facilitate  the  solution. 

Hard  copal  varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  on  a  naked 
fire  4  ozs.  of  hard  copal,  and  adding  slowly  fully  1  pt. 
of  oil,  heated  to  150°.  Then  add  about  l|  pt.  of  tur¬ 
pentine,  filter,  and  keep  in  closed  vessels.  The  addition 
of  oil  of  rosemary  during  the  heating  of  the  copal  will 
give  a  colourless  varnish  at  a  comparatively  low  tem¬ 
perature.  Hard  copal,  1  oz. ;  rosemary  oil,  J  oz. ;  linseed 
oil,  J  pt. ;  turpentine,  ^  pt.  The  linseed  oil  may  be 
replaced  by  copaiba  balsam,  thus ;  Dissolve  3  ozs.  of 
hard  copal,  add  1  oz.  of  heated  copaiba ;  dilute  with 
1  pt.  of  turpentine. 

French  oil  varnishes  are  made  in  a  similar  manner  to 
ordinary  oil  varnishes,  only  that  a  smaller  quantity  of 
oil  is  employed.  Half  a  gallon  of  boiled  linseed  oil  may 
be  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  and  8  lb.  of  pale  copal 
being  melted  in  the  gum  pot,  the  hot  oil  is  gradually 
stirred  into  it;  the  mixture  is  boiled  until  it  becomes 
quite  thick  and  tenacious,  and  is  then  removed  from 
the  fire.  After  cooling  somewhat,  li  gal.  to  2  gal.  of 
turpentine  may  be  stirred  in  and  the  varnish  strained 
for  use.  As  has  been  said,  the  making  of  varnishes  in 
which  the  boiling  of  linseed  oil  is  an  essential  part  is 
outside  the  range  of  the  ordinary  worker.  It  is  better  to 
buy  such  varnishes  ready  made. 

For  cricket  bats,  brown  hard  varnish,  as  used  in  the 
furniture  trade,  is  suitable.  Procure  1  gal.  of  methyl¬ 
ated  spirit,  2  lb.  of  orange  shellac,  8  oz.  of  resin,  and 
4  oz.  of  gum  benzoin.  Crush  the  gums,  digest  by  gentle 
heat  and  frequent  shakings,  and  strain  through  muslin. 
Apply  with  a  camel-hair  brush.  If  considered  too  ex¬ 
pensive,  omit  the  benzoin  and  add  an  extra  8  oz.  of 
resin.  A  reddish  tinge  may  be  imparted  by  adding  a 


VAENISHES. 


137 


small  quantity  of  Bismarck  brown  or  a  larger  quantity 
of  dragon’s  blood  ;  for  a  yellow  tinge,  add  gamboge  or 
annotto.  Varnish  for  cricket  bats  should  be  hard, 
durable,  and  elastic,  and  should  not  chip  off  when  sub¬ 
mitted  to  heavy  usage.  Many  cricket  bats  are  coated 
with  a  quick-drying  spirit  varnish  composed  of  shellac 
4  oz.,  sandarach  1  oz.,  gum  thus  1  oz.,  and  methyl¬ 
ated  spirit  1  pt.,  with  aniline  yellow  and  orange 
(soluble  in  spirits)  added  in  equal  parts  till  the  desired 
shade  is  obtained.  Dissolve  the  shellac,  sandarach,  and 
gum  thus  in  the  spirit,  shaking  at  intervals,  then  tint 
to  the  required  shade  with  the  aniline  dyes.  Apply 
with  a  camel-hair  brush.  The  most  durable  varnishes 
for  hard  wear  are  copal,  oak,  body,  and  carriage  var¬ 
nishes  :  these  may  be  coloured  by  adding  aniline  dyes 
soluble  in  oils.  They  do  not  dry  as  sharp  as  the  spirit 
varnishes  given  above,  but  will  stand  better  and  are 
more  durable  for  all  purposes.  They  usually  take  from 
thirty  to  forty  hours  to  dry  hard,  whilst  the  former  dries 
hard  in  about  four  hours. 

A  bright  varnish  finish  for  mailcarts  can  be  obtained 
almost  equal  to  French  polish.  System  in  handling  the 
goods,  together  with  good  quality  materials,  are  prime 
factors  in  obtaining  satisfactory  results.  French  polish 
or  spirit  varnish  has  the  merit  of  rapidly  drying  and 
giving  the  goods  a  smart  appearance,  but  cannot  be 
recommended  as  possessing  good  wearing  qualities  for 
outdoor  use.  Oil-varnish  finish  is  better  than  anything 
else,  and  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  using  first  a  good 
grain-filler,  which  seals  up  the  pores  of  the  wood  and 
prevents  the  varnish  sinking  in.  If  staining  is  necessary 
in  order  to  imitate  any  particular  kind  of  wood,  the 
staining  must  be  done  before  the  grain-filler  is  used. 
Oil  varnish  may  be  applied  direct  to  the  surface  as  it  is 
left  by  the  filler,  the  degree  of  finish  that  is  obtained 
depending  on  the  number  of  coats  of  varnish  that 
are  applied  and  the  skill  of  the  operator. 


138 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS. 


The  custom  of  staining  and  varnishing  floors  has,  apart 
from  sanitary  and  hygienic  reasons,  and  its  lightening 
of  the  daily  labour  of  cleaning,  much  to  recommend 
it.  The  margin  of  the  floors,  from  12  in.  to  36  in. 
■wide,  is  stained  and  either  varnished  or  polished,  and 
art,  oriental,  or  other  squares  and  rugs  are  used  in  the 
middle  only,  instead  of  the  whole  of  the  floor  being 
covered  with  carjjet ;  the  margin  left  on  the  stairs  by  the 
stair  carpet  is  similarly  treated.  From  an  artistic  stand¬ 
point  much  might  be  said  in  favour  of  this  ])lan.  The 
working  man  generally  contents  himself  with  simply 
staining  and  varnishing  in  some  neutral  colour— mostly 
in  imitation  of  walnut.  liis  wealthier  neighbour  has  a 
margin  of  parquetry,  made  of  various  kinds  of  wood  in 
veneer  or  blocks,  carefully  selected  and  joined  together 
by  experienced  hands  in  geometrical  designs.  These  are 
generally  finished  by  the  proce.ss  known  as  wax  ])olish. 
Whether  in  the  near  future  these  artistic  borderings  will 
be  used  in  the  homes  of  the  artisan  remains  to  be  seen. 
At  i)rescnt  he  has  to  content  himself  with  floorcloth, 
linoleum,  or  stained  floorboards. 

In  America  they  have  what  are  called  “  hard-wood 
floors,”  made  of  veneers  cut  to  various  designs  and 
secured  in  position  by  strong  cloth  or  canvas  backing, 
and  made  up  in  designs,  usually  1  ft.  6  in.  by  4  ft. 
for  covering  the  central  part  of  a  floor.  For  the 
margins  a  separate  design  is  worked  out,  usually  in 
12  ft.  lengths  and  of  various  widths.  The  boarded 
floor  having  been  made  perfectly  level,  this  par¬ 
quetry  is  secured  to  it  by  fine  brads  driven  through 
nearly  every  piece  of  -wood ;  these  brads  are  punched  a 


TEEATMENT  OF  FLOOKS. 


139 


little  below  the  surface,  and  the  holes  filled  up  with  putty- 
coloured  to  match  the  wood.  After  cleaning  off  and 
glass-papering  the  hard  wood,  it  is  finished  by  oil  or 
wax  polish. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  here  to  offer  a  few  suggestions 
to  those  who  are  not  quite  able  to  decide  whether  their 
carpets  shall  fit  close  to  the  walls,  or  whether  a  square 
carpet  shall  be  laid  in  the  centre,  leaving  a  margin  all 
round  to  be  stained,  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  covered  with 
some  kind  of  floorcloth. 

The  disadvantage  of  a  close-fitted  carpet  is  that  it 
cannot,  without  difficulty,  be  taken  up,  and  as  this  is 
not  done  frequently,  dirt  accumulates.  A  square  of 
carpet,  however  it  is  laid,  can  be  taken  up  and  re-laid 
without  much  trouble.  On  the  score  of  economy,  strong 
arguments  can  be  given  in  favour  of  squares.  The 
initial  cost  is  considerably  less,  for  there  is  little  or  no 
cutting  to  waste,  even  when  the  square  is  made  up  of 
ordinary  carpeting  ;  whereas,  in  a  room  having  a  carpet 
closely  fitted  to  the  floor,  a  considerable  quantity  may 
be,  and  often  is,  cut  to  waste.  Thus  saving  is  efiected  by 
using  a  smaller  carpet,  there  being  no  waste  in  material. 
The  only  objection  to  squares  that  can  be  seriously 
urged  has  merely  to  do  with  the  question  of  appearance, 
as  some  people  think  that  a  floor  which  is  cari^eted  all 
over  looks  more  comfortable. 

Preparing  the  Floor.  —  Before  anything  in  the 
way  of  staining  can  be  done  the  floor  must  be 
made  perfectly  level.  If  it  is  an  old  flooring,  pull 
up  any  nails  which  have  been  used  for  fastening 
carpets.  The  nail-holes  may  be  filled  with  putty, 
but  in  recesses  and  dark  corners  it  may  not  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  take  this  trouble.  All  floor  nails  should  be 
punched  in  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  below  the 
surface.  If  the  boards  do  not  fit  closely  together,  fill  in 
all  openings  with  strips  of  wood  planed  wedge  shape. 
These  should  be  brushed  over  with  glue  on  both  sides, 
then  driven  well  home  with  a  mallet,  and  allowed  to 
stand  till  pext  day  before  planing  off  level.  If  a,n 


140 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


ordinary  smoothing  plane  is  used  for  this  purpose  it  will 
be  found  impossible  to  plane  lengthways  close  up  to  the 
skirting  board.  A  useful  plane  for  such  a  purpose  is 
known  as  a  bull-nose,  a  section  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  10.  With  this  it  is  possible  to  smooth  the  floor  to 
within  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  skirting ;  the  re¬ 
maining  portion  can  be  smoothed  with  a  chisel  and 
finished  with  glass-paper.  The  floor,  whether  newly 
laid  or  not,  must  be  perfectly  free  from  grease  and  paint. 
To  ensure  this  it  is  a  wise  plan  to  give  it  a  good  scouring 


Fig.  10. — Section  of  Bull-nose  Plane. 


with  hot  water,  in  which  common  soda  has  been  dis¬ 
solved  instead  of  soap.  When  the  floor  is  perfectly  dry 
give  another  rub  down  with  No.  1  glass-paper.  The 
best  thing  to  use  to  scrub  a  dirty  floor  is  a  common  brick, 
or  a  Bath  brick.  The  brick  is  dipped  in  soda  water  and 
used  like  a  scrubbing  brush.  Lump  pumice  stone  is 
also  used  for  this  purpose. 

For  the  purpose  of  stopping  up  nail-holes,  etc., 
piaster  of  Paris  is  sometimes  recommended.  Should  it 
be  used,  it  must  be  AonQpreviom  to  any  staining.  Putty 
is  the  material  in  most  general  use,  but  on  no  account 
must  it  be  used  with  stains  that  are  mixed  with  water. 
As  putty  is  a  mixture  of  whiting  and  linseed  oil,  this 
will  prevent  the  stain  sinking  into  the  wood  ;  conse¬ 
quently  a  patchy  appearance  will  be  the  result.  Should 
the  stains  have  a  spirit,  oil,  or  varnish  basis,  it  is  of 
little  moment  when  the  holes  are  filled  up,  though  it  is 
wise  to  give  the  floor  at  least  one  coat  of  stain  first. 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS. 


141 


Tiie  patty  or  plaster  should  be  coloared  to  match  the 
stain  by  the  addition  of  some  coloaring  medium. 

If  the  floor  be  a  dirty  or  discoloured  one,  it  is  advisa¬ 
ble  to  plane  all  over  the  portion  to  be  stained,  otherwise 
the  difference  between  new  and  old,  clean  and  dirty 
surfaces  will  probably  be  plainly  discernible. 

So  far  we  have  presumed  that  the  floor  is  of  common 
spruce  or  deal.  Should  it  be  of  oak,  equal  pains  must 
be  taken  in  its  preparation. 

A  simple  and  effective  way  to  stain  floors  is  to  take 
one  pint  of  methylated  spirit ;  in  this  dissolve  four 
ounces  of  shellac ;  then  add,  for  a  walnut  colour,  as 
much  brown  umber  as  will  give  the  tone  required  in  two 
or  more  applications.  Similarly,  Venetian  red  may  be 
added  for  mahogany,  and  yellow  ochre  for  pine,  Apply 
this  with  a  brush  to  the  boards,  and  when  dry,  smooth 
down  with  fine  glass-paper.  By  wiping  over  with  a 
little  linseed  oil  on  flannel  it  will  be  kept  fresh 
looking ;  or  it  may  be  finished  bright  by  giving  two 
coats  of  best  oak  varnish.  It  also  forms  a  capital  basis 
for  wax  or  French  polish. 

Marking  Out  the  Floor. — For  good  workmanship  it 
is  essential  that  the  floor  should  be  marked  out,  and  all 
staining  done  to  a  clean  cut  edge,  particularly  if  it  is 
intended  to  finish  with  a  border  or  stencil  pattern. 
In  deciding  what  width  the  margin  shall  be,  allow 
at  least  3  in.  of  the  stained  portion  to  be  underneath 
the  carpet ;  thus,  on  laying  down  the  carpet,  if  the 
edge  is  found  to  stand  18  in.  from  the  skirting, 
mark  the  margin  to  be  stained  at  least  21  in.  wide.  This 
marking  out  is  sometimes  dispensed  with,  the  work 
being  done  in  a  haphazard  fashion,  and  sometimes 
the  carpet  is  fixed  previous  to  staining  and  varnish¬ 
ing.  Both  methods  are  to  be  deprecated ;  they  stamp 
the  work  as  having  been  done  by  inexperienced  hands. 

^totmwgf.—Unquestionably  the  best  method  is  that 
■of  using  stains  first,  then  sizing  and  varnishing,  unless  it 
ehould  be  thought  that  varnish  is  too  bright  and  glaring. 
In  that  case  it  may  be  finished  by  wax  polish,  oil  polish, 


112 


WOOD  DINISMiNG. 


or  French  polishing  ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
for  the  last-named  process  the  floor  must  be  exception¬ 
ally  well  cleaued  up. 

Varnish  is  to  be  recommended  generally  for  use  in 
ordinary  rooms.  It  requires  less  attention  to  keep  in 
order  than  wa,x.  An  occasional  coat  of  varnish  will 
restore  the  margin  to  its  original  gloss.  Wax-polished 
floors  require  rubbing  frequently,  and  they  cannot  be 
washed  without  destroying  the  gloss,  so  the  style  of 
finish  is  not  strongly  advocated,  except  for  floors  used 
for  dancing  purposes.  As  traffic  over  waxed  floors  soon 
destroys  their  gloss,  it  is  advisable  to  have  plenty  of  mats 
or  rugs  lying  about,  especially  near  the  doorway. 

Oiling  has  few,  if  any,  advantages  beyond  the  cheap¬ 
ness  of  the  work,  and  can  hardly  be  recommended  as 
suitable  for  ordinary  dwelling-houses.  At  its  best,  an 
oiled  floor  never  looks  as  well  as  one  that  is  varnished, 
and  it  is  only  where  there  is  much  traffic,  and  when 
expense  is  a  prime  consideration,  that  this  is  the  most 
suitable  finish. 

Floors  are  not  often  French  polished,  but  spirit 
varnish  of  good  quality  may  be  used  on  floors  •  that 
are  not  subject  to  much  hard  wear. 

Whatever  may  be  the  method  decided  upon  for  the 
finish,  staining  must  first  be  done.  This  is  usually  in 
imitation  of  oak  or  walnut ;  but  there  is  no  particular 
reason — beyond  custom — why  other  colours  should  not 
be  used. 

Several  well-known  makes  of  stain  are  in  the  market 
which  can  be  confidently  recommended  for  the  purpose. 
Those  who  desire  to  make  their  own  stain  will  find  full 
particulars  in  Chapter  II.  ;  but  there  is  no  better  recipe 
than  Vandyke  brown,  ammonia,  and  water.  The  pro¬ 
portions  are  of  little  importance.  The  vandyke  brown 
is  mixed  with  the  ammonia  to  form  a  thin  paste  ;  water 
must  afterwards  be  added  to  reduce  the  strength  and 
liquefy  the  stain.  A  thin  paste  is  mentioned,  and  it 
must  be  understood  that  a  thick  paste  is  not  satisfac¬ 
tory  ;  but  the  mixture  may  be  diluted  to  almost  any 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS, 


143 


extent  without  detriment.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the 
brown  is  thoroughly  mixed.  The  mixed  brown  and 
ammonia  paste  may  be  kept  as  a  stock  preparation  to  be 
used  with  water  as  may  be  required,  or  it  may  have 
water  added  and  be  kept  in  a  diluted  state  ready  for 
use.  It  is  advisable  to  mix  at  least  as  much  as  will 
suffice  to  do  a  room  entirely,  and  so  avoid  a  difficulty  in 
matching  a  fresh  mixture  to  an  exact  shade.  As  to  the 
quantity  required,  it  has  already  been  pointed  out  {see 
p.  15)  that  1  gal.  will  cover  about  sixty  square  yards, 
1  gal.  of  varnish  being  required  for  the  same  surface. 

When  the  stain  is  all  ready  in  a  paint  kettle  or  other 
convenient  receptacle,  select  a  large  sash  tool,  as  used  by 
painters,  and  a  fitch,  or  small  sash  tool,  for  doing 
the  edges.  Apply  the  stain  plentifully,  lengthways  of 
the  floor  boards,  commencing  at  the  right  or  left  of  the 
fireplace  and  working  round  to  the  door.  Recommence 
on  the  other  side  of  the  fireplace,  working  round  to¬ 
wards  the  door  again,  so  allowing  free  ingress  to  the 
room  without  interfering  with  the  staining  operations. 
Allow  the  stain  several  hours  to  dry.  Should  the  colour 
not  be  sufficiently  dense  repeat  the  operation  as  before, 
bearing  in  mind  that  two  coats  of  a  lighter  shade  will 
give  a  better  result  and  be  more  evenly  distributed  than 
one  coat  of  darker  colour.  It  is  strongly  advised  that 
experiments  should  be  made  on  odd  pieces  of  wood  to 
get  the  desired  colour  before  commencing  the  floor. 

Care  should  be  taken,  especially  if  potash  or  soda 
has  been  used  in  it,  not  to  let  the  stain  get  on  a 
painted  skirting-board. 

If  a  simple  margin  of  one  uniform  colour  is  all  that 
is  wanted,  it  will  now  be  ready  for  one  or  two  coats  of 
clear  size.  Size  is  used  to  economise  varnish  ;  it  is  much 
cheaper  and  fills  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which  thus 
absorbs  less  varnish,  and  allows  it  to  remain  on  the 
surface  where  it  is  wanted.  If  the  varnish  sinks  there 
is  comparatively  little  gloss.  The  size  may  be  obtained 
of  almost  any  oil  and  colourman.  It  is  applied  to  the 
floor  like  the  stain,  and  must  be  allowed  to  become 


144 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


thoroughly  dry  before  varnishing.  After  sizing,  fill  up 
with  putty,  that  has  been  coloured  to  match  as  near  as 
can  be  the  floor  as  intended  to  be  finished,  all  nail-holes 
and  crevices  in  which  it  has  been  found  impracticable  to 
insert  slips  of  wood. 

Combined  Stains  and  Varnish. — With  a  view  to 
simplifying  the  process,  varnish  makers  have  put 
upon  the  market  combined  stains  and  varnish.  These 
stains  claim  to  give  tones  varying  from  light  oak  to 
dark  walnut ;  the  latter  colour  is  gained  by  giving  suc¬ 
cessive  coats.  Their  use  is  not  strongly  recommended, 
except  where  the  lighter  tones  have  been  chosen,  and 
then  the  work  is  given  a  finishing  coat  of  good  oak 
varnish  to  equalise  it  in  appearance  and  body. 

For  a  wax-polished  floor  it  is  only  necessary  to  stain, 
and  then  when  dry  wax-polish  in  accordance  with  the 
instructions  given  on  p.  77. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  oil  finishing,  except  that 
it  will  be  understood  that  the  same  care  is  not  neces¬ 
sary  as  with  furniture.  Indeed,  on  a  floor  it  is  useless 
to  get  polish  with  oil,  which  is  useful  to  enrich  the 
colour  of  the  stain,  and  that  is  all. 

A  very  useful  stain  may  be  made  by  thinning  or¬ 
dinary  paint  with  turpentine.  Of  course  the  turpentine 
causes  the  paint  to  dry  flat  or  dead,  but  a  coat  of  varnish 
will  soon  alter  this. 

Decorative  Aorcfers.— Some  rooms  may  be  improved 
in  appearance  by  a  decorative  border,  as  shown  in  the 
suggestive  illustrations  (Fig.  11).  These  borders  need 
not  be  elaborate  in  design  ;  simple  yet  bold  patterns  give 
the  better  general  effect — on  the  same  principle  that  the 
carpet  designer  does  not  rely  so  much  on  the  elaboration 
of  detail  as  on  the  careful  selection  and  blending  of 
colours. 

Presuming  that  the  floor  margin  has  been  stained 
brown  and  the  inner  edge  left  cut  clean,  mark  out  the 
portion  it  is  intended  to  decorate.  The  groundwork  of 
this  may  be  pine,  satinwood,  or  light  mahogany.  The 
colours  selected  for  the  stencil  should  then  be  in  marked 


TREATMENT  OF  FLOORS. 


146 


contrast,  such,  as  rosewood,  black  or  brown.  Stencil- 
plates  may  be  bought,  or  they  may  be  cut  out  of  paper- 
hanger’s  lining  paper,  care  being  taken  to  cut  them 


lig.  11..^ — Suggestions  for  Border  and  Centre  Ornaments 
for  Floor. 


clean  and  sharp,  and  to  leave  in  sufficient  tie-pieces  or 
break  lines  to  hold  the  stencil  intact.  Give  the  paper 
stencil-plates  a  coat  of  linseed  oil  to  strengthen  and 
preserve  them. 

j 


146 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Mix  the  stencil  paint  to  the  colour  decided  upon  and 
the  consistency  of  stiff  paste ;  take  up  a  little  of  this 
with  a  stencil-brush,  Fig.  12,  which  is  specially  made 
for  the  purpose,  and  spread  it  on  a  slate  or  smooth  piece 
of  board,  then  stipple  it  through  the  stencil-plate.  If 
care  is  taken  to  keep  the  stencil-plate  motionless  on 
the  work  during  the  process  of  applying  the  paint,  and 
the  brush  has  not  been  charged  with  too  much  at  a  time, 
tlie  pattern  should  be  clearly  and  sharply  imprinted  on 
the  door. 

Should  the  imitation  of  tiles  be  attempted,  mark 
them  out  to  correspond  with  the  boards — that  is,  with 
boards  7  in.  wide  set  out  the  tiles  7  in.  square— and  these 


Fig.  12. — Stencil  Brush. 


may  be  subdivided  at  pleasure.  The  reason  for  this 
precaution  should  be  apparent ;  should  the  boards 
shrink,  it  certainly  would  not  look  well  to  see  a  row  of 
tiles  apparently  cracked. 

Black  or  other  dark  colour  lines  of  at  least  |  in.  wide 
should  divide  the  plain  from  the  decorated  portions  of  a 
door,  and  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  decoration  a  width  of 
at  least  3  in.  should  be  stained  the  same  colour  as  the 
margin.  The  lines  may  be  put  in  with  a  lining  fitch  or 
pencil,  using  the  thick  paint  as  advised  for  the  stencils  ; 
or  suitable  colours  may  be  mixed  with  equal  parts  of 
French  polish  and  spirits.  Imitation  tiles  should  be  ( 
outlined  with  black  or  brown  lines  at  least  ^  in.  wide. 

A  glance  at  some  printed  floorcloth  or  linoleum  will 
show  how  this  is  done. 

Finishing  Processes. — All  staining  and  decorating  j 
being  finished,  the  work  is  then  sized,  care  being  taken 
to  use  the  size  only  moderately  hot,  and  to  work  the 
brush  about  as  little  as  possible  to  avoid  breaking  up 
the  colours  ;  it  is  then  allowed  to  get  quite  dry.  It  is  next 


TEEATMENT  OP  PLOOES. 


14? 


smoothed  down  with  fine  worn  glass-paper ;  all  dust  m 
removed,  and  one  or  two  coats  of  good  varnish,  such  as 
hard  oak,  are  laid  on  with  a  brush,  starting  next  to  the 
fireplace,  as  advised  in  staining.  Whatever  varnish  is 
used,  it  should  be  laid  on  with  a  brush,  and  it  may  be 
noted,  as  in  staining,  that  two  coats  thinly  laid  on  are 
better  than  one  applied  thickly.  In  many  cases  one 
coat  is  all  that  is  needed.  Let  the  varnish  stand  several 
days  to  harden  before  allowing  it  to  be  walked  on. 

The  feet  of  chairs,  or  other  portions  of  furniture 
resting  upon  the  varnished  surface,  should  be  kept  from 
scratching  it  by  gluing  on  to  them  pieces  of  cloth  or 
wash-leather.  Should  the  varnish  get  scratched  or  show 
white  marks,  try  the  effect  of  wiping  over  with  a  little 
linseed  oil. 


148 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

DYEING  VENEERS. 

To  be  successful  in  dyeing  veneers  so  that  the  colours 
will  penetrate  right  through,  or  to  such  a  depth  as  will 
enable  the  veneers  when  “  laid  ”  to  be  cleaned  ready  for 
polishing  without  disturbing  the  colours,  requires  an  in¬ 
timate  knowledge  of  the  characteristics  of  the  woods  em¬ 
ployed,  and  of  the  action  of  the  chemicals  and  mordants. 
Thus  some  mordants  have  a  chemical  affinity  for  certain 
colouring  pigments,  whilst  on  others  they  may  have  an 
opposite  effect.  The  usual  method  is  to  employ  the  mor¬ 
dant  first,  but  sometimes  the  order  is  reversed.  In  any 
case,  the  colouring  matter  will  more  readily  strike  in  if 
the  veneers  are  quite  damp,  and  after  the  staining 
gradual  drying  should  be  the  rule,  rather  than  hasty 
drying,  to  enable  the  veneers  to  be  immediately  used. 

If  an  iron  tank  can  be  used  with  a  steam  jet  to  keep 
the  contents  boiling,  the  dyes  will  have  far  greater  pene¬ 
trating  ])ower. 

The  chief  mordants  are  obtained  from  iron,  tin, 
copper,  aluminium,  and  potash  soda,  whilst  the  colour¬ 
ing  substances  embrace  vegetable  roots,  and  barks  and 
berries,  with  acids  and  anilines. 

For  the  purpose  of  experiment  the  following  details 
are  given  : 

Brown. — Mordants  :  Bichromate  of  potash,  perman¬ 
ganate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  aniline,  or  alum.  Browm 
colour  being  gained  by  a  combination  of  red,  blue,  and 
yellow,  any  of  the  products  of  the  vegetable  kingdom 
yielding  these  colours  may  be  used  in  varying  quantities ; 
on  the  other  hand,  bichromate  of  potash,  permanganate 
of  potash  as  mordants,  with  sulphate  of  aniline  as  a 
colour  agent,  will  give  several  shades  of  brown,  or  after 


DYEING  VENEERS. 


149 


the  mordant  has  been  used,  a  weak  solution  of  aquafortis 
or  oil  of  vitriol  may -be  tried,  which,  however,  gives  a 
rather  scorched  or  burnt  appearance. 

Mahogany. — Madder  root  and  extract  of  logwood 
should  be  used  for  colouring  purposes,  with  pearlash  as 
a  mordant.  Carmine,  Brazil  wood,  dragon’s  blood, 
alkanet  root,  madder,  red  sanders,  and  logwood  also 
give  varying  shades  of  red. 

Yellow.— VsQ  turmeric,  saffron,  fustic,  gamboge,  and 
barberry  root,  with  pearlash  or  potash  as  mordants. 

Green. — Use  sulphuric  acid  and  pearlash  with 
arsenic,  or  acetate  of  copper  on  dyes  of  blue  and  yellow ; 
also  verdigris  dissolved  in  acetic  acid. 

Blue. — Use  indigo  with  vitriol. 

Black. — Use  extract  of  logwood  with  acetate  of  iron 
made  by  steeping  rusty  iron  in  common  vinegar  as 
already  explained.  Dyeing  veneers  must  not  be  con¬ 
founded  with  staining  veneers. 


150 


CHAPTER  XV. 

MARQUETKY  WOOD  STAINING. 

Marquetry  wood  staining  is  particularly  adapted  for 
those  who  are  proficient  with  pencil  and  brush.  It  is 
essential  that  the  surface  should  be  cleaned  up  well, 
for  any  irregularity  will  be  most  apparent  when  the 
article  is  polished. 

Holly,  sycamore,  and  lime  woods  are  the  best  for  the 
purpose,  though  American  whitewood  is  not  only  cheaper, 
but  furnishes  an  admirable  substitute  if  any  part  of  the 
decoration  is  not  intended  to  stand  out  white. 

Grasp  the  glass-paper  firmly  over  the  face  of  a  flat 
pad  of  cork,  to  be  bought  at  a  tool  shop  for  a  few  pence, 
and,  after  giving  a  good  rubbing,  damp  the  surface  with 
clean  water.  This  will  yjrobably  swell  the  grain  ;  when 
dry,  cut  down  again  with  glass-paper,  and  should  the 
wood  still  appear  rough  or  swell  when  water  is  applied, 
it  will  surely  do  the  same  when  liquid  stains  are  applied. 
Should  this  be  the  case,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  work 
is  badly  cleaned  up.  If  planing  or  scraping  is  quite  out 
of  the  question,  much  may  be  done  to  prevent  the  annoy¬ 
ance  by  using,  instead  of  clean  w’ater,  some  v^■ater  in 
which  rice  or  very  clear  glue  has  been  boiled. 

For  the  design,  a  rough  sketch  of  exact  size  should 
first  be  made.  This  may  be  original  or  adapted,  and 
genuine  examples  of  marquetry,  of  course,  furnish  the 
best  copy,  but  are  very  expensive,  especially  if  full  of 
detail.  Marquetry  transfers  of  good  quality  afford 
splendid  copy,  but  unless  an  adept  at  copying,  the 
worker  should  not  draw  the  design  direct  on  the  wood, 
as  erasures  are  apt  to  mar  the  finer  effects  on  delicate 
w’ork  of  light  tones.  Trace  the  design  on  tracing  paper, 


MARQUETRY  WOOD  STAINING. 


151 


and  place  the  tracing  over  the  article  to  be  decorated, 
the  outlines  exactly  corresponding  with  the  position  they 
are  intended  to  occupy  on  the  article.  A  sheet  of  black- 
lead  transfer  paper  is  then  carefully  inserted  beneath  the 
tracing  without  disturbing  it.  Now  carefully  trace  over 
the  design  again  with  a  hard  pencil  or  similar  sharp- 
pointed  article,  and  on  lifting  up  the  tracing  and  transfer 
paper,  a  clean  imprint  of  the  drawing  will  be  found  on 
the. wood.  Carbon  paper  as  used  for  manifold  books 
should  not  be  employed. 

For  staining  there  are  several  preparations  on  the 
market,  mostly  made  up  in  sets  ;  and  these  include 
a  fixing  medium.  If  instructions  are  sent  out  with 
these  outfits,  follow  them  implicitly,  as  some  may  be 
vegetable  or  aniline  dyes,  made  up  in  water  or 
spirits.  Should  any  doubt  arise  regarding  the  use  of 
the  medium,  the  manufacturers  will  generally  supply 
information.  Generally,  water  stains  can  be  fixed  with 
gum  as  a  medium,  and  spirit  stains  with  white  French 
liolish. 

The  object  of  these  mediums  is  twofold.  When 
writing  across  bare  wood  with  a  pen  and  ink,  the  lines 
are  apt  to  become  blurred,  and  the  same  is  true  with 
liquid  stains.  If  these  are  used  very  thin,  the  colour 
would  run,  thus  rendering  delicate  outlining  an  impossi¬ 
bility.  Secondly,  the  stains  require  something  to  bind 
the  colour,  and  prevent  it  rubbing  off  the  surface.  Gum 
will  answer  the  purpose  for  water  stains,  and  for  spirit 
stains  a  rubber  of  white  or  transparent  polish  applied 
direct  to  the  bare  wood  without  any  oil  will  suit  the 
purpose.  A  small  percentage  of  polish  added  to  spirit 
aniline  dye  also  acts  as  a  binder. 

Stephens’,  Judson’s,  Jackson’s,  or  other  reliable 
brands  of  liquid  or  powder  stains  may  be  used,  and 
are  usually  very  strong,  and  require  diluting  with 
water. 

In  practice  it  will  be  found  that  a  greater  variety  in 
gradations  of  tone  and  a  closer  resemblance  to  natural 
woods  will  be  gained  by  two  or  three  applications  of 


152 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


rather  weak  stain,  than  would  result  from  one  appli¬ 
cation  of  strong  colour. 

In  first  attempts  it  is  wise  to  avoid  over  elaboration  ; 
simple  designs  are  often  most  efl'ective,  and  splendid 
work  may  be  done  with  not  more  than  four  colours, 
including  black  or  strong  brown  for  outlining.  Opinions 
differ  as  to  the  correct  method  of  procedure.  Some 
Avorkers  stain  the  background  first,  and  the  design  with 
its  details  last  ;  others  Avork  on  the  contrary  plan.  In 
any  case,  it  is  not  far  Avrong  to  start  with  the  lighter 
tones.  Supposing  Avalnut  or  rosewood  forms  the  back¬ 
ground,  one  coat  Avould  give  a  light  shade,  and  a  second 
coat  Avould  make  it  still  darker.  Always  apply  the  stain 
in  the  direction  of  the  grain. 

A  satinwood  oval  or  shield  centre  looks  Avell  Avith  a 
background  of  roseAvood  or  dark  Avalnut,  especially  if 
outlined  in  ebony  ;  in  an  oval  panel  a  shell  design  may 
be  executed  in  broAvn  only. 

A  grandfather-clock  door  often  furnishes  a  capital 
example  of  Avhat  can  be  accomplished  on  simple 
lines. 

It  will  be  found  extremely  difficult  to  arrange  a  panel 
to  show  a  surround  of  plain  satinwood  banding  about 
1  in.  all  round  from  the  outer  edge,  yet  even  this  can  be 
managed  by  tAvo  methods.  One  is  by  staining  the  back¬ 
ground  as  if  no  lines  were  intended,  then,  when  the  first 
few  rubbers  of  polish  have  been  laid  on,  to  fix  the  stains. 
The  positions  of  the  bandings  are  marked  out  and,  pass¬ 
ing  a  chisel  or  graver  of  suitable  Avidth  along  the  edge  of 
a  straightedge,  the  polish  and  stain  are  scraped  aAA^ay  till 
thcAvhite  or  bare  Avood  isshoAvn.  This  is  then  stained, 
and  polishing  is  proceeded  Avith,  Another  plan  consists 
in  securing  thin  narrow  strips  of  wood  over  the  space 
intended  for  bandings,  these  strips  being  removed  after 
the  main  portion  of  the  staining  is  completed.  These 
methods  are  given,  of  course,  as  merely  makeshift  plans 
for  gaining  a  certain  result. 

Colourless  polish  made  from  bleached  shellac  should 
be  used.  Much  depends  on  this,  for  many  splendid 


MAEQUETRY  WOOD  STAINING. 


153 


specimens  of  work  have  been  spoiled  by  the  use  of  polish 
made  from  dark-coloured  shellac,  which  on  some  articles 
entirely  alters  the  appearance  of  the  decoration.  After 
the  staining,  there  is  still  a  risk  of  the  surface  being 
somewhat  rough  ;  if  so,  rub  it  lightly  with  finest  worn 
glass-paper,  wipe  over  lightly  with  raw  linseed  oil,  and 
wipe  quite  dry.  Examine  for  any  places  that  require 
touching  up  with  stain,  then  apply  a  rubber  of  polish, 
enclosing  the  wadding  pad  in  thin  fine  rag  that  has  been 
frequently  washed.  Apply  the  polish  with  even  pressure 
from  end  to  end,  see  that  the  article  is  covered  all  over 
with  polish,  then  set  it  aside  to  harden,  and  fix  the  stains, 
after  which  it  will  stand  more  rubbings,  but  in  a  circu¬ 
lar  direction,  without  fear  of  disturbing  the  colours,  pro- 
vided  the  pad  is  not  made  too  wet  with  polish.  No  grain- 
filler  need  be  used  on  this  class  of  work. 


I 


158 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Marqueti'y  Work  imitated  by 
Stains,  18,  19 
Martin,  Vernis,  11 
Matching  or  Colouring  up,  93, 
94 

- ,  Pigments  for,  95 

- ,  Stains,  93,  94 

-  Veins  in  Wood,  94 

- :  Wavy  Appearance  on 

Wood,  94 

Methylated  Finish  and  Spirit, 
102 

-  Spirit,  Eectifying,  118 

Musical  Instruments,  Varnish 
for,  132 

Nail  Holes  in  Floors.  140 

-  - ,  Stopping  up,  140 

Oak,  Action  of  Ammonia  on, 
12 

- ,  Ageing,  12 

- ,  Fumigating,  29 

-  Stains,  22-25 

- ,  Wax  Polishing,  77 

Oil,  linseed.  Testing,  131,  132 

- Polishing,  84-86 

- -  -  Counters  and  Spirit 

Cabinets,  98 

-  - ,  linseed  Oil  for,  85 

-  and  Spirit  Varnishes, 

Difference  between,  123,  124 

- -  Varnish,  123,  124,  129 

-  - - ,  Fat,  130 

-  - ,  French,  136 

Painted  and  Grained  Work, 
Cracked  Appearance  on,  97 
Paints,  Enamel,  155 

- .  - ,  Finishing  Wood 

with,  109 

Panelling,  Varnishing,  113 
Perfumed  Varnish,  128 
Pianos,  German,  Renovating 
Polish  on,  91,  92 
Picric  Acid  for  Colouring  Var¬ 
nish,  116 
Pigments,  95 

Pine  Furniture,  Varnishing, 
10 

Pitting  of  Varnish,  119 
Plane,  Bull-nose,  for  Levelling 
Floors,  140 

Plastei’-of-paris  Grain  Filler, 
106 

Polish,  Applying,  58,  59 

- ,  Coloured,  94 

- ,  Colourless,  15.2,  153 

-  Extract,  .Taxa,  73 

• - ,  Faded,  92,  93 

-  as  Filler,  39 

-  on  German  Pianos,  91 

- - - - ,  Renovating, 

91,  92 

- ,  Making,  56 

- .  Ready-made,  57,  58 

- ,  Removing,  from  Flat 

Surface,  89,  90 


Polish,  Removing,  from  Hands, 
76 

- ,  Restoring  Faded,  92,  93 

- ,  Shellac  and  Methylated 

Spirit,  58 

-  Sweating,  90,  91,  100 

-  for  Table  Top,  White,  72 

- ,  Wax,  Ingredients  for,  78 

- ,  “  White,”  57 

Polished  Surface,  Removing 
Cracks  on,  100,  101 

-  - ,  -  Patch  on,  100 

-  Work,  Cracks  on,  90 

Polishes,  Dyed,  Using,  95 
Polishing  (see  also  French 
Polishing) 

- ,  American  System  of,  75 

-  Cheap  Furniture,  73 

-  Ebony  Fretwork,  76 

- :  Enamelling,  72 

-  Fretwork,  75 

-  Mahogany  Chairs,  69,  70 

- ,  Oil,  84-86 

- ,  - ,  Linseed  Oil  for,  85 

-  Oil  Varnish  Surface,  71, 

72 

- ,  Rottenstone  used  in,  70 

-  Varnished  Surface,  70, 116 

- ,  Wax,  77-83 

Potash  Bichromate  Stain,  12 
Pounce  for  French  Polishing, 
74 

Privet,  Stain  made  from,  18 
Pumice  Powder,  39,  40,  62 
Pumice-stone  for  Rubbing 
down  Varnished  Work,  115 
Purple  Stain,  30 
Putty  for  Stopping  Nail  Holes, 
140 

Eepolishing  Old  Work,  89 

- ■,  Preparing  Wood  for,  89 

- -  Stained  Mahogany  Chair, 

105 

— —  Table  Tops,  96 
Revivers,  French  Polish,  98,  99 
Ronnk,  Hospital,  82 
Rosewood  Stains,  26,  27 
Rottenstone  used  in  Polishing, 
70 

Rubber,  49-53 

- ,  Charging,  53,  54 

- -  for  Glaze,  68 

- .  Keeping,  for  Future  Use, 

55 

- ,  Material  for,  52 

-  for  Polishing  Fretwork,  50 

Rubbing  down  Varnished 
Work,  115 

Sandarach  Varnish,  127,  128 
Satin-wood  Stain,  20 
Scratches  on  French  Polish, 
102 

Shellac,  Dissolving,  125 

-  used  in  Finishing,  108 

-  Gum,  111,  112 


INDEX. 


159 


Shellac,  Refining,  133,  134 
Size  used  in  Floor  Varnishes, 
143 

Spindle  Tree  Seeds,  Stain 
made  from,  18 

Spirit  Cabinets,  Oil  Polishing, 
98 

-  Enamelling  with  French 

Polish  Finish,  154,  155 

- ,  Methylated,  102 

- ,  - ,  Rectifying,  118 

•  -  Varnish,  108,  109,  123,  124, 

134 

- -  Brush,  Gilder’s  Mop 

as,  110 

■  -  - ,  Brushes  for,  110 

- - ,  Brown,  125 

■  -  - ,  Classification  of,  124 

•  -  - ,  Colouring,  116 

- -  - ,  Gilder’s  Mop  as 

Brush  for,  110 

-  - ,  Recipes  for,  124,  125 

■  - -  - ,  Removing,  90 

-  - ,  White  Hard,  125, 

126 


Spiriting  off,  63-65 
Stain,  Blue,  30 
Brown,  30 
Cherry,  31 
Ebony,  27,  28 
Green,  30 

- ,  Olive,  30 

Grey,  30 

-  for  Imitating  Marque¬ 
try  Work,  18,  19 

-  made  from  Blueberry,  18 

-  -  -  Currant-bush 


Bark,  18 

- -  -  Elderberry,  IS 

-  - - Privet,  18 

-  -  -  Spindle  Tree 

Seeds,  18 

- ,  Mahogany,  25,  26,  70 

- ,  Maple,  25 

- ,  Matching,  93,  94 

- ,  Oak,  22-25 

- ,  Olive  Green,  30 

- ,  Plant,  18 

- ,  Purple  or  Chocolate,  30 

- ,  Rosewood,  26,  27 

- ,  Satin-wood,  90 

-  and  Varnish  Combined, 

144 


■  - ,  Vegetable,  18 

- ,  Walnut,  21,  22,  34 

■  - ,  Wood,  Aniline  Dyes  ap¬ 

plied  as,  17 

- ,  Yellow,  31 

- ,  - ,  made  from  Barks 

of  Trees,  18 

Stained  Mahogany  Chair,  Re¬ 
polishing,  105 

-  Whitewood  Fading,  102, 

103 


Staining,  9,  14-35 


Staining  American  White- 
wood,  17 

- ,  Aniline  Dyes  for,  29-32 

— — :  Body-staining,  15 
— — •  Floors,  141 

- -  to  Imitate  Mahogany,  20 

— —  Marquetry  Work,  150-153 

-  - ,  Preparation  before, 

139 

- :  Surface-staining,  15 

-  Veneers,  32,  33 

Stencils  for  Floor  Border 
Decoration,  145 
Sticky  Varnish,  122 
Stopping,  Beeswax  as,  46,  47 

-  for  Blistered  Veneer,  46 

- ,  Hard,  43-47 

- ,  - ,  Making,  44,  45 

- ,  — — ,  Using,  45 

-  up  Nail-holes,  140 

Stringings  or  Inlays,  13 
.Surface-staining,  15 
Sweating,  90,  91,  100 
Table  Tops,  Repolishing,  96 

-  - ,  White  Polishing,  72 

Tallow  for  Fillers,  41 
Toys,  Bright  Varnish  for,  128 
Turpentine  added  to  Varnish, 
110 

-  and  Whiting  Filler,  39 

Varnish,  Action  of,  11 
Amber,  127 

Aniline  for  Colouring,  116 
Applying,  112,  114 
Black,  125 
Blooming,  118,  119 
Brown  Hard,  136,  137 

-  Spirit,  125 

Carriage,  133 
Clear,  129 

Colouring,  Picric  Acid 
ur,  116 

- - ,  Aniline  form,  116 

Colourless,  129 
for  Common  Work,  112 
Copal,  134-136 

- ,  Pat,  134 

- ,  Hard,  136 

Cracks  on  New,  118 
for  Cricket  Bats,  136,  137 
Dark,  125 

not  Drying,  Cause  of, 
19,  120 

Essential  Oil,  129 

-  - ,  Classification 

f,  129 

— - ,  Turpentine  tor, 

29 

Ether,  Classification  of, 
26 

- ,  Recipes  for,  126,  127 

Fat,  130 

- ,  Copal,  134,  135 

- ,  Oil,  130 

as  Filler,  38 


160 


WOOD  FINISHING. 


Varnish  Finish  for  Mailcarta, 
137 

-  for  Floors,  142 

- ,  French  Oil,  136 

■ -  for  Gilded  Wood,  127 

- ,  Hard  Copal,  136 

- ,  Linseed  Oil  used  in  Oil, 

130-132 

- ,  Mailcart,  137 

- ,  Making,  without  Heat, 

117 

-  for  Maps,  White,  129 

- Mixed  with  Aniline  Dyes, 

16 


-  tor  Musical  Instruments, 
132 

-  -  Outside  Work,  133 

Oil,  123,  124 

,  - ,  Essential  (seo  Es¬ 

sential  Oil  Varnish) 

— ,  Fat,  130 
— ,  Linseed  Oil  for,  130- 
132 

Perfumed,  128 
,  Picric  Acid  for  Colour¬ 
ing,  116 

-  Pitting,  119 
Properties  of,  123 
Removing,  33,  120,  121 
Resins  for,  117 
Sandarach,  127,  128 

.  Sealing-wax,  128,  129 
- :  Shellac,  Dissolving,  125 

: - ,  Refining,  133,  134 

Spirit,  108,  109,  123,  124 

- ,  Brushes  for  110 

- ,  Classification  of,  124 

- ,  Colouring,  116 

-  and  Copal,  134 

,  - ,  Gilder’s  Mop  as 

Brush  for,  110 

- ,  Properties  of,  123 

- ,  Recipes  for,  124,  125 

- ,  Removing,  90 

- ,  White  Hard,  125,  126 

and  Stain  Combined.  144 
Sticky.  121 
for  Toys,  Bright,  128 
Turpentine  Added  to,  110 
for  White  Furniture,  125 
.  White  Hard  Spirit,  125, 
126 

.  .  — ,  for  Maps.  129 
Varnished  Work,  Glasspaper- 
ing.  113 

- - ,  Levelling  down,  112 

-  - .  Oil,  Polishing,  71,  72 


Varnished  Work,  Polishing,  70, 
116 

-  -  turning  Slate 

Colour,  118 
Varnishes,  123-137 

- ,  Oil  and  Spirit,  Difference 

between,  123,  124 
Varnishing  Panelling,  113 

-  Pine  Furniture,  10 

- :  Rubbing  down  with 

Pumice-stone,  115 

- :  Shellac  Gum  used  in.  111 

- -  Wood,  108-122  ■ 

Vegetable  Stains,  18 
Veins  in  Wood,  Matching,  94 
Veneer  Work,  Blistered,  Stop¬ 
ping  for,  46 

Veneers,  Black  Dyes  for,  149 

- ,  Blue  Dyes  for,  149 

- ,  Brown  Dye  for,  148 

- ,  Dyeing,  148,  149 

- ,  Green  Dye  for,  149 

- ,  Mahogany  Dye  for,  149 

- ,  Staining,  32,  33 

- ,  Yellow  Dye  for,  149 

Vernis  Martin,  11,  12 
Walnut  Stains,  21,  22,  34 
Water  Marks  on  French 
Polished  Surface,  103.  104 
Wavy  Appearance  on  Wood. 

Matching,  94 
Wax  Polish,  Applying,  81 

- -  - ,  Consistency  of,  80 

-  - ,  Ingredients  for,  78 

- -  — — .  Preparing,  78,  79 

-  Polishing.  77-83 

- -  -  Floor,  82,  83 

-  -  ,  Brush  for,  82 

-  -  Mahogany,  77,  78 

- Oak,  77 

White  Furniture  Varnish,  125 

-  Hard  Spirit  Varnish,  125, 

126 

“ -  Polish,”  57 

-  Polish  for  Table  Top,  72 

-  Streaks  on  French 

Polished  Work,  106 
Whiting  and  Turpentine 
Filler,  39 

Whitewood,  American,  Stain¬ 
ing,  17 

- ,  Stained,  Fading  of,  102, 

103 

Yellow  Dye  for  Veneers,  149 
-  Stain,  31 

-  -  made  from  Tree 

Barks,  18 


Printed  by  Cassell  &  Compant,  Limited,  Ludgate  Hill,  London,  E.C. 
30.707 


HANDICRAFT  SRRIRS  [continued). 


Electro-  Plating.  With  Numerous  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents, — introduction.  Tanks,  Vats,  and  other  Apparatus.  Batteries, 
Dynamos,  and  Electrical  Accessories.  Appliances  for  Preparing  and  Finishing 
Work.  Silver-Plating,  Copper-Plating.  Gold-Plating.  Nickel-Plating  and 
Cycle-Pialing.  Finishing  Electro-Plated  Goods.  Electro-Plating  with  Vari...us 
Metals  and  Alloys.  Index. 

Clay  Modelling  and  Plaster  Casting.  With  153  Engravings  and 

JJiagrams. 

Contents. — Introduction.  Drawing  for  Modellers.  Tools  and  Material  for 
Modelling.  Clay  Modelling  Modelling  Ornament.  Modelling  the  Human 
Figure.  Waste-moulding  Process  for  Plaster  Casting.  Piece-moulding  and 
Gelatine  Moulding.  Taking  Casts  from  Nature.  Clay  Squeezing  or  Clay 
Moulding.  Finishing  Plaster  Casts.  Picture  Frame  in  Plaster.  Index. 

Violins  and  Other  Stringed  Instruments.  With  about  180 

Illustrations. 

Contents. — Materials  and  Tools  for  Violin  Making.  Violin  Moulds.  Violin 
Making.  Varnishing  and  Finishing  Violins.  Double  Bass  and  a  Violoncello. 
Japanese  One-string  Violin  Mandolin  Making.  Guitar  Making.  Banjo 
Making.  Zither  Making  Dulcimer  Making.  Index. 

Glass  Writing,  Embossing,  and  Fascia  Work.  (Including 

the  Making  and  h  ixing  of  Wood  Letters  and  Illuminated  Signs.)  With 
129  Illustrations. 

Contents. — Plain  Lettering  and  Simple  Tablets.  Gold  Lettering.  Blocked 
Letters.  Ste-cil  Cutting.  Gold  Etching.  Embossing.  French  or  Treble 
Embossing.  Incised  Fascias,  Stall-plates,  and  Grained  Background.  Letters 
in  Perspective;  Spacing  Letters.  Arrangement  of  Wording  and  Colors.  Wood 
Letters.  Illuminated  Signs.  Temporary  Signs  for  Windows.  Imitation 
Inlaid  Signs.  Imitation  Mosaic  Signs.  Specimen  Alphabets.  Index. 

Photographic  Chemistry.  With  31  Engravings  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Introductory  :  Relation  oi  Chemistry  to  Photography.  Some 
Fundamental  Chemical  Laws.  Meaning  of  Symbols  and  Equations.  Water: 
its  Properties  and  Impurities.  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen  Photographically  Con¬ 
sidered.  Theories  Concerning  the  Latent  Image.  Chemistry  of  Development, 
Toning,  Intensification,  etc.  Nitrogen  Compounds  Employed  in  Photography. 
The  Halogens  and  Haloid  Salts.  Sulphur  and  its  Compounds.  Metals,  Alkali 
Metals,  etc.  Organic  or  Carbon  Compounds  used  in  Photography.  Pyroxyline, 
Albumen,  Gelatine,  etc.  Benzene  and  the  Organic  Developers.  Index. 

Photographic  Studios  and  Dark  Rooms.  With  iSo  illus¬ 
trations. 

Contents. — Planning  Studios.  Building  Studios.  Portable  and  Temporary 
Studios.  Studios  Improvised  from  Greenhouses,  Dwelling  Rooms,  etc. 
Lighting  of  Studios.  Backgrounds.  Scenic  Accessories.  Dark-Rooms.  Portable 
Dark-Rooms.  Dark-Room  Fittings.  Portable  Dark  Tent.  Index. 

Motor  Bicycle  Building.  With  137  Illustrations  and  Diagrams. 

Contents. — Frame  for  Motor  Bicycle.  Patterns  for  Frame  Castings.  Build¬ 
ing  Frame  from  Castings.  ^  Making  3^  H.  P,  Petrol  Motor.  Spray  Carburettor 
for  3^  H.  P.  Motor.  Ignition  Coils  for  Motor  Cycles.  Light-weight  Petrol 
Motor  for  Attachment  to  Roadster  Bicycle.  Spray  Carburettor  for  Light¬ 
weight  Motor.  Index. 

Other  Volumes  in  JPreparatiom 


DAVID  McKAY  Publisher,  610  South  Washington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


technical  instruction. 

Important  New  Series  of  Practical  Volumes.  Edited  by  PAUL 
^  N  HASLUCK.  With  numerous  Illustrations  in  the  Text. 
Each  book  contains  about  i6o  pages,  crown  8vo.  LlotP, 
$1.00  each,  postpaid. 

i.-  -I  rk.oi.nUfQtnen’s  Work.  With  226  Illustrations. 

rSS?i;r.tog,.  Sell  D„wtog.  .pd  M.P..  C0I.UPP6 

Drawings.  Making  a  Drawing.  Index. 

Practical  Gasfitting  .  WlA  120  Retort  to  the  Gas 

Contents  —Hovr  CoaX  Gas  is  Maae.  ,  Lavine  the  Gas  Pipe  m  the 

House"’  (S'S^Gas  Bur!;i°rs  Incandescent  Lights.  .Gas  FUtmgs  in 
WorLs’hops  Ld  Theatres.  Gas  Fittings  for  Festival  Illuminations.  Gas  Fires 
and  Cooking  Stoves.  Index. 

Practical  Staircase  Joinery.  ^*^^5  of  Staircase 

Conients.-lntroducuon  -.  Explanation  <>*  f  Two-Bight 

-Housed  String  Stair  :  h^asuring  P'^^’s^t^frease  wfth  Winders  at  Top 
fn^B^m.^'ltaSase  with  Hah.sp^^^^ 

S'pTn  Snfng^rahcaL  with  Buu“nose''st!p.  Geometrical  Staircases.  Winding 
Staircases.  Ships’  Staircases.  Index. 

Practical  Metal  P'f e  Work^  Geometrical  Construction 
th«rc«i;r.-Materials  “^ed  m  Metal  Pla  e  VVorK.^ 
of  Plane  Figures.  Geometrical  Cotistruc  ion  ^  F  Soldering  and 

Figures.  Tools  and  APP''*"“^  Galva^sing  Examples  of  Practical 

^-^ir^Plate^^o-k^'  E^a^^ieTof  PrfetPeaS^^^^^^^  Index. 

Practical  Graining  and  ^  Salil'i' AlS!‘°Gr’aining 

Contents.-G~e:  ntroduction  Tools  and  Mech^amca^^.^. 

Mahogany  and  Pitch-pme  Graining.  ,  ,  Staining  Imitating  Inlaid 

Kpdl"t.‘Si,°gffrpdS^ 

°prin^rs’''‘oils  Colors  and  Varnishes.  With  Numerous 

cJ“-Painters-  Oils.  Color  and  Pigment.  JVh^te^P^gmen.^^ 
Pigments.  Chrome  Pigments,  ^ake  P  „  Bronze 

efe-  rirl^lwGrrn'Iinrand  Oils.  Ind  Solvents  for 

Varnishes.  Varnish  Manufacture.  Index. 

Practical  It-  Sheet 

on  Roofs.  Index. 

Practical  Pattern  Making. 

Cninf^di^r.-Foundry  Patterns  and  F°nndiW  Ptantice.  ^Boring  Holes 

Finishing  Patterns.  Gircular  Pattern  ^  Steam  Engine  Cylinder 

in  Castings.  Patterns  and  Moulds  for  Hon  Go lum  Patterns. 

Patterns  and  Core  Boxe^  Worm  Patterns  Valve  Patterns  and 

Head  Stock  and  Poppet  Patterns.  Slide-rest  Patterns. 

Core  Boxes.  Index. 

DAVID  McKAY,  Publisher.  6.0  South  Washington  Square.  Philadelphia 


TECHNICAL  INSTRUCTION  {continued). 


Practical  Handrailing.  With  144 illustrations. 

Contents. of  Handrailing.  Definition  of  Terms.  Geometrical 
Drawing.  Simple  Handrails.  Wreathed  Handrails  on  the  Cylindrical  System. 
The  Uses  of  Models.  Obtaining  Tangents  and  Bevels.  Face  Moulds:  their 
Construction  and  Use.  Twisting  the  Wreath.  Completing  the  Handrail. 
Orthogonal  or  Right-angle  System  of  Setting  Wreathed  Handrails.  Handrails 
for  Stone  Stairs.  Setting  out  Scrolls  for  Handrails.  Setting  out  Moulded 
Caps.  Intersecting  Handrails  without  Basements.  Index. 

Practical  Brickwork.  With  368  illustrations. 

Contents. — English  and  Flemish  Bonds.  Garden  and  Boundary  Walls. 
Bonds  for  Square  Angles.  Excavations,  Foundations,  and  Footings.  Junctions 
of  Cross  Wails.  Reveals,  Piers.  Angles  and  other  Bonds.  Jointing  and 
Pointing.  Damp-proof  Courses  and  Construction.  Hollow  or  Cavity  Walls. 
Chimneys  and  Fireplaces.  Gauged  Work  and  Arches.  Niches  and  Domes. 
Oriel  Windows. 

Practical  Painters’  Work.  With  Numerous  illustrations. 

Contents. — Objects,  Principles  and  Processes  of  Painting.  Painters*  Tools 
and  Appliances.  Materials  used  by  Painters.  Preparing  Surfaces  for  Paint¬ 
ing,  Painting  Woodwork,  Painting  Ironwork,  Painting  Stucco  or  Plaster; 
Distempering  and  Whitewashing  Color  Combination.  House  Painting.  Varnish 
and  Varnishing.  Stains  and  Staining.  Estimating  and  Measuring  Painters* 
Work.  Index. 


Textile  Fabrics  and  Their  Preparation  for  Dyeing. 

With  Numerous  Illustrations.  •  ^ 

Contents. — Cotton,  Flax,  Jute,  and  China  Grass,  Wool.  Silk.  Cotton 
Bleaching.  Linen  Bleaching.  Mercerising.  Wool  Scouring  and  Bleaching, 
Scouring  and  Bleaching  Silk.  Water.  About  Dyeing.  Index. 


Coloring  Matters  for  Dyeing  Textiles.  With  Numerous 

Illustrations. 

Contents. — Indigo  Coloring  Matters,  Logwood  Coloring  Matters.  Natural 
Red  and  Yellow  Coloring  Matters.  Aniline  Coloring  Matters.  Azo  Coloring 
Matters.  Anthracene  Coloring  Matters.  Chrome  Yellow,  Iron  Buff,  Man¬ 
ganese  Brown,  Prussian  Blue,  Method  of  Devising  Experiments  in  Dyeing. 
Estimation  of  the  Value  of  Coloring  Matters.  Index. 


S^itary  Construction  in  Building.  With  13 1  Illustrations. 

--T_^ — Subsoils^ and  Sites.  Materials  of  Construc- 


Courses.  Stability  of  Walls. 
Space  and  Ventilation.  A 


d  Manufacture.  With 

vcfractory  Materials,  Crucibles, 
Iron.  Cast  Iron  or  Pig  Iron, 
last  Furnace.  Blast  Furnace. 
Blast  Furnace.  By-products. 
Malleable  Iron.  Preparation  of 
Refining  Pig  Iron  and  Dry 
11.  Index. 

Preparation. 


hington  Square,  Philadelphia. 


GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY  ^ 


3  3125  00763  4377 


